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Division 


Section 


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THE  LITERARY  STYLE  OF 
THE  PROPHETIC  BOOKS 
OF  THE  ENGLISH  BIBLE 

BY    l/" 

DAVID  HENRY  KYES,  Ph.D. 

'Studied  m  \^-V'erc?d'urs, 


BOSTON 

RICHARD   G.  BADGER 

THE    GORHAM   PRESS 


Copyright,  1919,  by  Richard  G.  Badger 


All  Rights  Reserved 


Made  in  the  United  States  of  America 


The  Gorham  Press,  Boston,  U.  S.  A. 


TO 

MY    WIFE 

COMPANION,    HELPER,    INSPIRATION 
I   DEDICATE   THIS    BOOK 


PREFATORY  NOTE 

THE  object  of  the  following  Dissertation  is 
to  examine  and  discuss  the  literary  setting 
and  the  essential  qualities  of  the  style  of  the 
Prophetic  Books  in  the  English  Bible  with  special 
reference  to  Rhetoric  and  Figures  of  Speech. 

The  basis  of  the  study  is  the  text  of  the  standard 
Authorized  King  James  Version  of  1611,  as  orig- 
inally printed.  It  is  followed  in  all  respects,  only 
the  poetic  passages  are  so  arranged  as  to  bring 
out  the  rhythm  and  versification. 

The  scope  of  this  Dissertation  does  not  include 
the  discussion  of  questions  of  Higher  Criticism. 
Such  questions  are  treated  only  to  the  extent  that 
seems  to  be  necessary  to  a  correct  understanding 
of  literary  structure  and  style. 

Although  not  especially  prepared  for  a  text  in 
Bible  study,  this  book  is  admirably  suited  as  a 
guide  in  the  study  of  the  Prophecies.  With  the 
help  of  the  foot-notes  such  a  study  might  be  ex- 
tended almost  indefinitely. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

Introduction 9 

I    The  Growth  and  Decline  of  Prophetic 

Power  and  Influence 15 

II     Personality  and  Work  of  the  Prophet  27 

III  The  Genius  and  Philosophy  of  Hebrew 

Expression 34 

IV  Isaiah,  His  Times  and  Style  ....  49 

V    Jeremiah  and  Lamentations  ....  75 

Lamentations 9^ 

VI      EZEKIEL  AND  DaNIEL 99 

Ezekiel 99 

Daniel m 

VII     HosEA,  Joel  AND  Amos ii6 

Hosea    ...           ii6 

Joel 122 

Amos 127 

VIII    Obadiah,  Jonah,  Micah  and  Nahum      .  132 

Obadiah 132 

Jonah 134 

Micah 135 

Nahum  .      .' 142 

IX    Habakkuk,  Zephaniah,  Haggai,  Zecha- 

RIAH,  MaLACHI 146 

Habakkuk 146 

7 


8  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

IX        Zephanlah       . 150 

Haggai 153 

Zechariah 15^ 

Malachi 162 

Conclusion 167 

Bibliography 171 

Index ^11 


INTRODUCTION 

THE  ancestry  and  environment  of  its  writers 
profoundly  Influence  a  nation's  literary  prod- 
uct. Geographical,  historical  and  political  con- 
ditions, early  home-life,  mental  tendencies  and  re- 
ligious conceptions,  affect  a  man's  writings.  A 
course  In  the  history  and  geography  of  a  nation 
very  appropriately  precedes  the  study  of  Its  litera- 
ture. 

Bed-rock  principles  revealed  to  them  by  God 
were  the  basis  of  the  work  of  the  Old  Testament 
Prophets.  In  rearing  the  superstructure,  how- 
ever, environment  profoundly  modified  results. 
The  cloudless  skies,  the  rugged  contour  of  the 
country,  the  simple  pursuits  of  the  people,  fur- 
nished suggestions  for  the  multitude  of  figures  of 
speech  found  in  the  prophetical  writings.  The 
interests  of  God's  Kingdom  were  constantly  on 
their  minds.  Hence  a  river,  lake,  mountain,  for- 
est, a  threshing  floor  or  a  stable  might  be  used  to 
vivify  their  ideas. 

The  history  of  the  literature  of  any  nation 
teaches  us  that  a  strong  national  life  has  always 
provoked  a  potent  literature.     This  Is  seen  espe- 

9 


10  Introduction 

daily  in  the  writings  immediately  following  a  suc- 
cessful war  in  which  a  nation  has  demonstrated 
its  prowess  and  virility.  The  Augustan  Age  in 
Rome,  following  a  series  of  military  victories,  con- 
tains the  names  of  Horace,  Ovid  and  Virgil.  This 
marked  the  acme  of  Roman  national  life.  The 
splendid  nationality  of  England  in  the  Age  of 
Elizabeth  was  not  entirely  the  result  of  successes 
in  war.  Discoveries,  the  Reformation  and  the 
Renaissance  attested,  however,  to  the  fact.  The 
names  of  Shakespeare,  Spenser,  Bacon  and  Sid- 
ney are  the  sufficient  guarantee  of  a  great  litera- 
ture at  this  time.  In  America  the  early  colonies 
contained  but  few  good  writers.  Other  work 
seemed  more  important  than  that  of  literature. 
There  were  homes  and  a  living  to  make  and  an 
independence  to  win.  After  1820,  when  the  idea 
of  nationality  was  well  established,  the  names  of 
Longfellow,  Emerson,  Lowell  and  Motley  ap- 
peared and  with  them  a  truly  great  and  profound 
literature. 

The  rule  illustrated  above  obtained  with  the 
Hebrew  people.  When  a  strong  national  life  was 
anticipated  and  seemed  sure,  an  Isaiah  could  ex- 
claim in  rapturous  periods.  A  righteous  and  pow- 
erful king  with  even  a  pious  minority  in  power,  in- 
spired the  hope  necessary  to  a  great  literature. 
During  many  such  periods  the  national  life  hung 
in  the  balance.     It  had  no  better  barometer  than 


Introduction  II 

the  writings  of  a  given  period.  The  personality 
of  the  men  coupled  with  social  and  political  con- 
ditions were  responsible  for  the  weeping  of  Jere- 
miah as  well  as  for  the  denunciations  of  Amos 
and  Nahum.  The  lesser  value  of  some  of  the 
minor  prophecies  is  closely  connected  with  the 
decline  of  Israel's  national  life.  Haggai  and 
Zephaniah  rendered  an  abiding  service  to  their 
constituency.  This  service  hardly  compares  with 
the  literary  productions  of  Isaiah  or  Ezekiel. 
Most  of  the  Prophets  had  a  keen  perception  of 
the  relation  between  faith  and  obedience  and  true 
success.  This  was  not  as  W.  Robertson  Smith 
points  out  ^  the  faith  and  obedience  of  an  individ- 
ual but  that  of  a  nation.  The  idea  of  individual- 
ity had  not  been  worked  out.  One  of  the  good 
effects  of  the  Captivity  and  the  breaking  up  of  the 
nation  was  to  promote  this.  It  becomes  prominent 
in  the  later  Prophetic  Writings  and  is  a  marked 
feature  of  Christ's  utterances. 

The  Prophets  were  of  the  type  of  men  to  be 
profoundly  moved  by  duty  and  a  high  sense  of 
responsibility.  As  they  were  not  merely  pre- 
dictors, but  men  who  felt  that  they  were  the  very 
mouth-pieces  of  God  at  an  important  epoch  of  the 
world's  history,  all  their  utterances  were  of  a  high 
order.  The  fate  of  millions  was  to  be  guided 
by  their  Writings.    How  important  that  their  ex- 

*  "Prophets  of  Israel,"  p.  49  ff. 


12  Introduction 

pression  be  the  best  of  which  they  were  capable. 

The  main  difference  between  the  true  and  the 
false  Prophet  was  in  the  matter  of  conscientious- 
ness in  their  work.  The  former  was  bent  upon 
giving  the  people  what  God  taught  whether  ac- 
ceptable to  them  or  not ;  the  latter  was  bent  upon 
pleasing  the  people  and  getting  a  following  at  all 
costs.  The  former  had  a  high  and  holy  purpose 
and  worked  to  a  plan;  the  latter  used  profession- 
alism and  necromancy  to  gain  a  hearing.  The 
work  of  the  former  abides  in  noble  records,  while 
that  of  the  latter  has  been  relegated  to  the  oblivion 
which  it  deserves. 

A  final  modifying  literary  force  is  found  In  the 
mental  temperament  of  the  Prophets.  The  men- 
tality of  each  was  sufficiently  cogent  to  give  him  a 
distinct  personality.  The  message  of  each  Prophet 
bears  the  stamp  of  a  man.  If  some  of  their  work 
was  done  in  a  state  of  ecstasy,  it  is  no  more  than 
we  might  expect.  Religious  principles  instead  of 
being  old  and  well-established,  as  with  us,  were 
new  and  untried.  Men  who  lived  near  enough 
to  God  in  these  early  days  to  know  His  will  and 
receive  an  impelling  force  from  His  character, 
had  a  right  to  become  ecstatic.  Each  true  Prophet 
carried  a  giant's  load  of  responsibility  and  work, 
and  often  the  security  of  a  Kingdom  rested  upon 
him. 


THE  LITERARY  STYLE  OF  THE  PROPHETIC 
BOOKS  OF  THE  ENGLISH  BIBLE 


The   Literary  Style  of  the  Prophetic 
Books  of  the  English  Bible 

CHAPTER  I 

THE  GROWTH  AND  DECLINE  OF  PROPHETIC  POWER 
AND  INFLUENCE 

THE  growth  and  the  development  of  the  He- 
brew Prophet  occupies  a  unique  place  in  the 
religious  life  of  the  world.  He  was  not  as  he  is 
too  often  regarded,  an  impracticable,  visionary, 
unearthly  being.  He  was  a  part  of  our  common 
humanity,  with  its  points  of  weakness  as  well  as 
of  strength.  If  the  age  in  which  he  lived  had  high 
regard  for  signs,  omens,  visions  and  dreams,  his 
work  was  modified  thereby.  Only  the  fact  of  his 
walking  closely  with  God  and  being  very  seriously 
impressed  with  the  importance  of  his  work  kept 
him  at  times  at  his  great  task.  His  usefulness 
and  influence  with  the  common  people  were  en- 
hanced by  the  fact  that,  although  he  was  a  man, 
somehow  the  will  of  God  was  communicated  to 
him. 

Abraham,   Moses  and  Samuel  were  the  first 

15 


1 6  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

great  Prophets  of  the  chosen  people.  They  had 
the  trustful  obedience  and  mighty  faith  which  were 
the  essential  requisites  of  a  Prophet.  In  the  time 
of  Samuel,  however,  the  Seer  held  an  important 
place.  It  has  been  claimed  that  the  Seer  repre- 
sented the  Godward  side  of  revelation,  perceiving 
or  receiving  the  truth,  while  the  Prophet  repre- 
sented the  manward  or  uttering  side.^  This  seems 
debatable.  Surely  none  could  be  better  judges  of 
the  time  and  manner  of  delivering  truth,  than 
those  whose  minds  were  filled  with  emotions  while 
receiving  it. 

In  the  later  monarchy  the  Seer  was  displaced 
almost  entirely  by  the  Prophet.  The  foregoing 
would  establish  the  truth  that  if  he  was  not  the 
forerunner  of  the  Prophet  their  works  would  over- 
lap only  a  few  centuries.^ 

The  difference  between  the  Seer  and  the 
Prophet  was  one  of  sacredness  and  comprehen- 
siveness. In  the  early  history  of  prophecy,  before 
the  scope  of  the  Prophet's  work  was  well-defined, 
the  Seer  flourished  with  his  interpretations  of 
signs  and  omens.  He,  however,  did  not  have 
the  statesman's  grasp,  the  religious  enthusiast's 
mysticism,  or  the  Prophet's  penetration.^ 

From  the  time  of  the  later  monarchy  onward 

^  Schaff-Herzog  Ency.  of  Religious  Knowledge.  Art  "Proph- 
ecy." 

^  Idem. 

'Hastings  Bible  Die.  Vol.  IV,  p.  io8— "The  date  when  the 
change  of  name  from  Seer  to  Prophet  took  place  cannot  be 
ascertained   and  the  change  itself  is  diflBcult  to  explain." 


Prophetic  Power  and  Influence  17 

the  name  Prophet  became  common.  Several  ele- 
ments contributed  to  make  the  Prophets  and  their 
work  of  more  than  passing  importance : 

(a)  They  were  called  generally  against  their 
wills.  Although  the  pressure  brought  to  bear 
upon  them  was  moral  and  spiritual  rather  than 
physical,  they  could  not  but  feel  that  it  came  from 
God.4 

(b)  The  Prophet  is  the  instrument  through 
whom  God  reveals  His  will  to  Israel.  (Jer.  1:7, 
Ex.  IV: 1 5.)  God  talks  with  him  (Jer.  XXIII: 
18,  Ezek.  111:4)  ^rid  reveals  His  purpose  to  him. 
He  opens  the  Prophet's  mouth  (Ezek.  111:27), 
answers  his  questions  (Hab.  II:iff)  and  fills  him 
with  fury  and  indignation.^ 

(c)  Men  in  the  time  of  the  Prophets,  as  well 
as  to-day,  believed  that  there  was  a  Supreme  Be- 
ing; that  the  Supreme  Being  communicated  with 
men;  that  these  communications  were  not  carried 
on  indiscriminately  but  with  certain  men  chosen 
of  God,  who  felt  it  their  duty  to  communicate 
them  to  others.^ 

These  beliefs  came  to  have  a  wonderful  influ- 
ence in  the  development  of  Prophecy.  The  "true 
Prophet  realized  when  he  had  received  special 
directions  from  God.  This  gave  him  confidence 
in  the  declaration  of  his  message.     He  felt  that 

*  Schaff-Herzog  Ency.  of  Religious  Knowledge.     Art.  "Proph- 
et." 
°Ency.  Biblica.   Art.     "Prophetic  Literature." 
'Hastings'  Bible  Die.  Vol.  IV,  p.   107. 


1 8  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

he  could  make  no  mistake  for  he  was  uttering  the 
words  of  Jehovah  who  is  infallible.  (Amos  IV  :2, 
Hos.  V:9,  Is.  XVII  :24,  Jer.  I:ii,  Ezek.  XII: 
28.)^  He  ascribed  all  extraordinary  manifesta- 
tions to  God,  as  well  as  the  impulse  to  deliver  or 
withhold  the  truth  received.  When  this  belief, 
because  of  miracles  performed  by  the  Prophets 
and  the  fulfillment  of  Prophecy,  came  to  be  shared 
by  the  common  people,  it  gave  the  Prophets  tre- 
mendous power.  The  word  of  the  Prophets  came 
to  have  such  energy  due  to  this  cause  that  their 
pronounced  woes  brought  speedy  dismay  to 
Israel.  (Zech.  1:6.)^  The  Almighty  slays  or 
hews  by  the  Prophets,  and  kingdoms  are  pulled 
down  or  set  up  by  them  (Jer.  1: 10)  ;  their  special 
province  is  to  deal  with  those  not  amenable  to 
human  authority.  No  matter  whether  the  high 
or  low  are  disturbed  in  their  wickedness,  the  inex- 
orable righteousness  of  God  must  be  maintained. 
In  contrast  to  the  false  Prophets,  the  true 
Prophets  were  men  of  the  highest  honor.  They 
felt  that  they  held  a  sacred  position  between  men 
and  God  and,  like  Jeremiah,  would  suffer  intensely 
rather  than  violate  this  trust.  In  Amos  III  17,  we 
read: 

"Surely  the  Lord  God  will  do  nothing  but  he  reveal- 
eth  his  secret  unto  his  serv^ants   the   prophets."     Con- 

'  Sec.  I,  En(y.  Biblica.  Art.     "Prophetic  Literature." 


Prophetic  Power  and  Influence  19 

cerning  God's  guidance  we  read  in  Hosea  XII  :io, — "I 
have  also  spoken  by  the  prophets  and  I  have  multiplied 
visions  and  used  similitudes  by  the  ministry  of  the 
prophets";  also  in  Hosea  XII 113, — "And  by  a  prophet 
the  Lord  brought  Israel  out  of  Egypt  and  by  a  prophet 
was  he  preserved." 

Realizing  their  great  power,  and  being  filled 
with  a  peculiar  sense  of  their  high  and  holy  mis- 
sion both  to  God  and  men,  the  true  Prophets  re- 
frained from  no  word  or  deed  that  would  help 
mankind.  They  might  forego  social  pleasure  (Jer. 
XV  :7)  or  family  life  (Jer.  XIII 12)  or  even 
marry  a  harlot  (Hosea  1:2)  if  God  so  ordered. 
Because  of  this  complete  abandonment  to  God, 
He  used  them  mightily,  not  only  in  their  own 
age,  but  through  their  utterances  in  every  age. 

The  fundamental  idea  that  God  had  made  a 
covenant  with  His  chosen  people — Israel — and 
called  them  to  be  separate  from  heathen  nations, 
the  Prophets  would  not  and  could  not  forget.^ 
From  time  to  time  the  idea  obtained  in  Israel  that 
God  was  beholden  to  her;  that  He  could  not  ac- 
complish His  purposes  without  her  and  that  His 
honor  must  be  sacrificed  if  she  did  not  exist  or 
prosper.^^  This  belief  was  the  cause  perhaps  of 
her  yielding  so  often  to  her  besetting  sin  and 
running  after  heathen  customs  and  superstitions. 
She  did  not  at  this  time  seem  to  have  a  proper 

°  See  A.  B.  Davidson,  "Old  Testament  Prophecy,"  p.  104. 
"  See  Ency.  Biblica.  Art.     "Prophetic  Literature." 


20  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

conception  of  the  blessings  and  benefits  to  be  ob- 
tained by  obedience  to  her  covenant  with  God. 
The  distinctive  and  important  work  of  the  Proph- 
ets is  done  at  this  point. ^^  They  had  the  correct 
conception,  that,  for  Israel's  good,  God  wished 
that  she  would  so  conduct  herself  that  He  could 
accomplish  His  purposes  for  the  world  and  hu- 
manity through  her.  They  saw  that  God's  purpose 
was  to  develop  the  ethical  and  spiritual  ideas  of 
the  world  through  her.  Yet  they  did  not  feel  that 
God  was  beholden  to  the  Israelites  but  that  He 
had  many  means  whereby  He  might  carry  out 
His  far-reaching  purposes  if  they  were  recreant 
to  their  part  of  the  covenant.^^  The  Prophets 
made  themselves  unpopular  by  declaring  that  when 
there  was  any  estrangement  between  the  Israelites 
and  God,  the  Israelites  were  at  fault.  Unpopu- 
larity, however,  did  not  turn  them  from  what  they 
believed  to  be  their  duty.  Nor  did  they  become 
narrow  in  the  performance  of  it.  On  the  other 
hand,  they  were  ever  engaged  in  modifying  and 
adapting  the  old  truths  to  new  conditions  and 
circumstances.  They  were  constantly  standing  for 
the  advance  of  everything  that  strengthened  the 
personal  and  national  life  of  Israel.^^  By  living 
close  to  God  and  studying  institutions  of  the  past, 

"  See  Expositors  Bible,   Vol.   I.     Minor  Prophets,     p.  44-50. 
Also  Ency.  Biblica.  Art.     "Prophetic  Literature." 
"  Ibid.    "Minor  Prophets."    Vol.  I,  p.  50. 
"  See  Ency.  Biblica.  Art.     "Prophetic  Literature." 


Prophetic  Power  and  Influence  21 

they  were  able  to  read  the  signs  of  the  times  far 
in  advance  of  the  common  people.  They  saw- 
that  God's  ultimate  goal  was  to  beget  in  the  minds 
of  His  people  high  spiritual  and  ethical  standards. 
This  they  constantly  maintained.  Even  when  they 
were  successful  in  their  undertakings,  the  true 
Prophets  did  not  depart  from  their  one  work  of 
keeping  God  and  His  standards  in  the  forefront. 
They  felt  that  God  had  minute  charge  of  the  af- 
fairs of  this  world,  and  the  only  true  success  for 
themselves  and  Israel  was  in  following  His  guid- 
ance minutely.  To  aid  Israel  in  doing  this,  they 
aimed  constantly  to  eradicate  heathenism  and 
heathenish  conceptions  from  her  mind. 

The  Prophets  were  an  effective  force  in  the 
centralization  of  the  national  life  of  Israel.  In 
the  time  of  the  early  Judges  there  was  no  Israelit- 
ish  nation.  Everything  seemed  to  be  in  a  state 
of  chaos.  It  was  easier  for  the  Israelite  to  run 
away  from  home  than  to  remain  there.^^  Under 
such  circumstances  the  Prophet  by  emphasizing  the 
unity  of  God,  and  loyalty  to  Him,  aided  in  chang- 
ing the  popular  tendency  from  centrifugal  to  cen- 
tripetal.^^ In  a  few  centuries  Israel  was  trans- 
formed from  a  wandering  horde  to  a  monarchy. 

For  a  time,  when  the  Prophetic  movement  was 
new,  men  of  a  practical  turn  of  mind  conceived 

"See  Expositors  Bible.     "Judges,"  p.  46  ff. 
^'See  Ency.  Britannica.  Art.  'Trophet." 


22  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

the  idea  of  having  schools  of  the  Prophets.  Elisha, 
e.  g.y  felt  that  the  affairs  of  Israel  demanded 
schools  of  this  character.^^ 

References  to  these  schools  are  found  in  2 
Kings -IV:  1-38,  2  Kings  V:22,  VI  :i,  and  2  Kings 
IX: I.  The  mention  of  these  schools  occurs  first 
in  I  Sam.  X:5.  Such  schools  existed  down  to  the 
time  of  Amos.  Their  popularity  seems  to  have 
declined  as  the  work  of  the  Prophet  became  more 
intensely  spiritual.^ "^  They  were  regarded  as  mak- 
ing the  work  semi-professional  in  character,  thus 
tending  to  its  degradation. 

The  earlier  Prophets  were  content  to  deliver 
their  messages  orally.^^  The  later  ones,  beginning 
with  Amos,  felt  that  they  should  record  their  ad- 
monitions. When  Israel  was  younger  and  the 
novelty  of  Prophecy  was  not  worn  off,  it  seemed 
to  be  easy  for  the  Israelites  to  turn  the  Prophetic 
injunctions  into  deeds.  The  efforts  of  the  later 
Prophets  were  not  thus  rewarded.  This  with  the 
desire  to  transmit  their  work  to  posterity  may 
have  been  the  cause  of  their  resorting  to  the  pen. 
Budde  agreeing  with  Kuenen  says  on  the  subject 
of  written  Prophecy:  "It  must  have  been  their 
very  ill  success,  the  unbelief  of  the  people,  that 

"J.  G.  Herder  holds  that  schools  of  the  Prophets  were 
wisely  established  by  Samuel.    Vol.  II,  p.  217-218. 

"  See  Schaff-Herzog,  Ency.  of  Religious  Knowledge.  Art. 
"Prophets." 

^*  See  Schaff-Herzog,  Ency.  of  Religious  Knowledge.  Art. 
"Hebrew  Literature";  Hastings'  Bible  Die.  Vol.  II,  p.  572. 


Prophetic  Power  and  Influence  23 

above  all  else  compelled  them  to  resort  to  the 
pen.  The  great  mass  of  the  Prophets  had  no  such 
need,  for  their  words  were  turned  at  once  into 
deeds  as  men  obeyed  thein.  But  the  true  Prophets 
who  had  no  successes  in  the  present  to  record 
transmitted  their  oracles  to  posterity  that  there 
at  least  they  might  awaken  a  response  or  at  any 
rate  receive  the  acknowledgment  that  their  con- 
tents were  true."^^      '  ' 

Coming  to  the  time  of  Amos  we  have  an  ad- 
vance in  Prophetic  power  and  influence,  although 
at  that  time  many  of  the  Prophets  had  given  up 
hope  of  saving  Israel  as  a  nation.^^  Spiritual  life 
and  personal  righteousness  are  emphasized.  To 
the  person  of  limited  vision  God's  purposes  seem 
to  be  defeated.  Jeremiah  especially  lamented  over 
the  sins  of  Israel  and  her  failure  to  repent.  He 
feels  that  she  has  thrown  away  her  last  hope. 
Subsequent  events  showed  that  his  fears  were  well 
founded.     (Micah  1:4-9.) 

If,  however,  national  righteousness  was  on  the 
wane,  personal  religion  and  spiritual  faith  were 
rapidly  forging  ahead.  This  fact  is  revealed  in 
the  Prophecies  of  Isaiah  and  especially  in  the 
Psalms.  Had  Israel  remained  intact  as  a  strongly 
centralized  government,  those  who  composed  the 
nation  would  not  willingly  have  gone  to  other 

"Ency.  Biblica.  Art.     "Prophetic  Literature,"  col.  3855. 
^°  See  Ency.  Britannica.    Art.    "Prophecy." 


24  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

nations  to  disseminate  the  spiritual  truths  for  the 
purpose  for  which  God  had  raised  up  the  Hebrew 
nation.  With  the  national  life  destroyed  and 
great  emphasis  placed  on  personal  righteousness, 
when  the  tribes  were  scattered  among  the  king- 
doms of  that  day,  God's  plan  for  the  spreading 
of  righteousness  was  consummated  in  the  largest 
manner.  (Is.  LX-LXIII.)  There  resulted  also  an 
added  emphasis  on  the  personal  life  preparing  the 
minds  of  men  for  the  coming  of  Him  who  said: 

"Of  how  much  more  value  is  a  man  than  a  sheep?" 
and  "What  shall  it  profit  a  man  if  he  shall  gain  the  whole 
world  and  lose  his  own  soul?" 

In  the  later  Prophets  the  Spirit  appears  as  a 
permanent  possession.  (Is.  LXI.)  He  comes 
now  as  a  constant  enlightenment  acting  through 
the  leaders  of  Israel.  (Is.  LIX:2i,  Hag.  11:5.) 
He  is  variously  designated,  and  divers  terms  are 
used  to  express  His  relation  to  the  Prophets. 
He  ''was  on  them,"  "rested  on  them,"  "fell  upon 
them,"  "laid  violent  hold  upon  them,"  "moved 
them"  and  took  hold  of  them.  This  leads  us 
to  the  next  statement,  "that  the  Spirit  was  re- 
garded as  something  external  to  man  which  was 
given  him  by  God,"  and  hence  a  peculiar  impor- 
tance was  attached  to  the  truths  gained  through 
Him. 

The  influence  and  importance  of  the  Prophets 


Prophetic  Power  and  Influence  25 

continued  to  Increase  until  the  time  of  Isaiah  and 
Micah.  By  their  time  the  excitement  so  common 
to  early  religious  movements  had  largely  subsided, 
and  Old  Testament  Prophecy  was  at  its  most 
useful  and  potent  stage.  Some  excellencies  in 
Prophetic  style  may  be  observed  in  the  writings  of 
Zephaniah,  Nahum  and  Habakkuk,  but  these  were 
brief  and  did  not  have  the  reach  and  power  of  the 
utterances  of  Isaiah. 

The  best  things  must  die  after  they  have  served 
their  purpose  or  when  conditions  so  change  that 
their  usefulness  is  past.  We  have  seen  how  the 
Prophets  were  faithful  in  denouncing  sin  and  how 
they  at  times  hoped  against  hope  that  Israel  might 
turn  from  her  wickedness  and  remain  a  perma- 
nently righteous  nation.-^  In  the  time  of  Amos 
and  Hosea,  however,  optimism  had  waned  en- 
tirely, and  their  messages  were  pessimistic.  The 
Prophets  had  lost  confidence  in  the  Israelites. 
Israel  as  a  nation  must  fall,  but  for  the  individual 
Hebrew  there  will  be  the  opportunity  for  a  richer 
personal  life  and  as  a  result  Israel  would  wield  a 
wider  influence  after  the  Captivity.^-  The  per- 
manence of  Israel  as  a  nation  was  not  so  important 
as  the  dissemination  of  the  fundamental  Israelit- 
ish  idea  of  a  universal  kingdom  of  righteousness. 

The  success  of  the  Prophets  prepared  the  way 

^See  Ency.  Biblica,  Col.  3865. 

^Is.  XI:  II  ff,  Ezek.  VI:  8-9,  Micah  IV- V,  Jer.  XXIII:  3-6, 
2  Kings  XIX:  30-31. 


26  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

for  the  decline  of  their  work.  When  the  reforms 
which  they  had  suggested  were  adopted,  or  the 
sins  which  they  had  denounced  became  unpopular, 
the  reason  for  their  existence  was  not  so  evident. 
The  reign  of  every  good  king  helped  their  work  to 
be  a  success  and  lessened  the  reason  for  the  Proph- 
ets' existence.  They  had  been  faithful  and  God 
had  approved  their  efforts.  Some  like  Jonah  ^^ 
might  have  felt  aggrieved  when  they  seemed  to 
be  compromised  on  account  of  the  repentance  of 
the  people.  Considering  those  early  times,  they 
had  dealt  thoroughly  with  the  great  questions  of 
man's  destiny.  It  remained  for  others  to  amplify 
and  make  new  applications  and  combinations  of 
their  teachings. 

''See  Jonah  Illrio  and  IV :i. 


CHAPTER  II 

PERSONALITY  AND   WORK  OF  THE   PROPHET 

IT  will  help  us  to  understand  the  literary  struc- 
ture and  style  of  the  Prophecies  if  we  keep  in 
mind  that  the  Prophets  were  men.  There  have 
been  many  theories  ^  of  inspiration.  None  of 
these,  however,  will  account  fully  for  the  work  and 
writings  of  the  Prophets.  The  feelings,  emotions 
and  entire  personality  of  a  writer  enter  into  his 
style.  Instead  of  dealing  with  doctrines,  the  Proph- 
ets dealt  with  Jehovah  and  His  will  concerning  the 
Israelites.  This  made  the  tasks  of  the  Prophets 
similar.  They  are  to  teach  men  how  to  find  God, 
and  to  declare  His  purpose  beforehand.  Hence 
they  have  been  compared  to  watchmen.  Men  who 
by  extraordinary  sagacity  perceive  the  impending 
storm  and  tell  how  to  evade  it.^ 

In  considering  this  subject  Davidson,  who  treats 
the  matter  very  practically,  says  that  the  important 
question  at  this  time  is,  "In  what  condition  was 
the  mind  of  the  Prophet  when  he  received  the 

*  See  A.  B.  Davidson,  "Old  Testament  Prophecy,"  p.   132  f., 
also  Ency.  Biblica,  Art.  "Prophet." 
'  See  Ency.  Biblica,  Art.     "Prophetic  Literature." 

27 


28  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

truth  ?  What  was  the  state  of  mind  that  the  Spirit 
craved  for  his  work?"  Because  ecstasy  and  vision 
were  common  among  oriental  peoples  some  have 
held  that  an  ecstatic  condition  of  mind  was  neces- 
sary for  revelations  from  God.  This,  however, 
is  not  true,  for,  in  the  case  of  Peter,  God  linked 
a  vision  of  truth  of  supreme  importance  to  the 
Gentile  race,  to  an  absorbing  physical  craving.^ 
It  is  claimed  on  good  authority  *  that  critical 
exegesis  does  not  favor  the  view  that  the  greater 
Prophets  considered  ecstatic  states  the  necessary 
guarantee  of  a  divine  revelation.  Yet  these  states 
were  by  no  means  uncommon,  for  each  of  the 
Major  Prophets  refers  to  them.  (See  Jer.  XV 117, 
Is.  Vlllrii,  Ezek.  Vllliiff,  XI  :iff,  XXXVII: 
iff.)  The  foregoing  leads  us  to  question  the  state- 
ments of  Gardiner:  "He  (the  prophet)  was  pos- 
sessed by  the  hand  of  the  Lord,  and  the  words 
which  emerged  from  his  lips  were  the  immediate 
utterance  of  God."  "The  man  who  utters  them 
(the  oracles  of  the  prophets)  feels  that  the  words 
spring  from  his  lips  completely  formed  without 
volition  of  his  own."  ^ 

If  the  Prophets  were  machines  or  passive  recep- 
tacles of  the  truth  or  perhaps  media  through  which 
the  truth  passed,  to  attribute  a  vigorous  style  to 
one  and  an  inferior  style  to  another  is  irrelevant. 

'Acts  X:ii  ff. 

*  See  Ency.  Biblica,  Art.     "Prophetic  Literature." 

'The  Bible   as  English  Literature,   p.  245-246. 


Personality  and  Work  of  the  Prophet    29 

But  this  is  not  the  case.  It  might  seem  to  be  in 
some  instances,  but  Davidson  holds  that  "the  pro- 
phetic state  was  one  of  high  mental  activity  going 
through  various  grades  of  intensity  and  of  that 
kind  of  activity  called  intuition."  ^ 

Some  light  may  be  shed  on  this  phase  of  the 
question  by  considering  our  own  mental  states  un- 
der differing  conditions.  When  we  are  seized  by 
a  new  idea  or  some  different  phase  of  an  old  one, 
a  mental  glow  or  deep  emotion  often  sweeps  over 
the  entire  being.  Again  when  the  mind  is  intense, 
or  in  a  wrapt  spiritual  or  mental  state,  it  is  often 
unconscious  of  external  surroundings. 

Language  concerning  the  subconscious,  hypno- 
tism, the  splitting  of  a  personality  and  suggestion, 
is  common  to-day.  The  fields  of  the  conscious 
and  subconscious  mind  are  being  explored  as  never 
before.  People  are  finding  that  they  have  more 
in  common  with  the  spiritual  than  they  once 
thought."^ 

A  person  in  the  hypnoidal  condition  may  have 
ideas  introduced  into  the  mind  that  would  other- 
wise be  impossible.^  The  disagreeable  habit  of 
absentmindedness  is  often  the  result  of  intense 
absorbing  thought.  Even  as  high  an  authority  as 
Quackenbos  ^  would  make  the  transliminal  self 


"A.  B.   Davidson,   "Old  Testament  Prophecy,"   p.    119. 
'See  I.  Coriat,  "Abnormal  Psychology";    also  J.   D.   Quack- 
enbos, "Hypnotic  Therapeutics." 
*  See  Psychotherapeutics,  "A  symposium." 
'J.  D.  Quackenbos,  "Hypnotic  Therapeutics." 


30  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

the  direct  intermediary  between  the  soul  and  God. 
Dr.  Dick  makes  the  difference  between  the  con- 
scious and  subconscious  the  same  as  between  Paul's 
''mind  of  the  flesh"  and  "mind  of  the  Spirit."  ^^ 
Prof.  James  says,  "It  must  be  admitted,  therefore, 
that  in  certain  persons,  at  least,  the  total  possible 
consciousness  may  be  split  into  two  parts  which 
co-exist,  but  mentally  ignore  each  other  and  share 
the  objects  of  knowledge  between  them."  ^^  Many 
striking  illustrations  may  be  produced  to  show 
the  unmistakable  workings  of  the  subconscious 
mind. 

If  the  success  of  God's  work  in  any  given  period 
or  locality  does,  as  we  believe,  depend  upon  the 
perfection,  the  intensity,  the  enthusiasm  of  the 
souls  through  whom  He  works,  it  is  fair  to  sup- 
pose that  at  least  every  natural  means  will  be 
used  by  Him  to  prepare  suitable  personalities  to 
do  Prophetic  work.  It  is  a  noticeable  fact  that 
no  matter  in  what  manner  or  condition  of  mind 
the  Prophets  received  their  truths,  they  were  able 
to  reproduce  them.  This  indicates  that  these 
truths  were  not  received  in  a  passive,  mechanical 
manner.  This,  however,  does  not  militate  against 
the  idea  of  dreams  as  a  condition  of  receiving  the 
truth.^2  People  in  our  own  day  have  accom- 
plished mental  gymnastics  in  dreams  that  were 
impossible  in  waking  hours. 

'°  S.  M.  Dick,  "Psychotherapy." 
"Quoted  in  Dick's  "Psychotherapy." 
"  See  S.  M.  Dick,  "Psychotherapy." 


Personality  and  Work  of  the  Prophet    31 

Davidson  says  that  the  dream  is  the  extreme 
illustration  of  the  Prophetic  gift.  Dreams  were 
not  considered  as  essential  by  the  Prophets  them- 
selves. It  is  significant  that  as  prophecy  declined 
in  the  times  of  Daniel  and  Zechariah  there  was 
a  revival  of  the  vision  idea.^^ 

Let  us  then  make  the  broad  statement  that  the 
Prophets  manifested  every  kind  and  grade  of  men- 
tal activity.  It  went  through  all  the  various  de- 
grees of  intensity;  both  the  reproductive  and  cre- 
ative powers  of  the  mind  were  alert.  The  ideas 
and  conditions  that  move  men  to-day  moved  them. 
Causes  produced  the  same  effects  in  their  lives 
that  they  would  in  ours.  The  very  personality  of 
the  Prophet  assumes  energy  and  activity  in  soul 
and  body;  for  God  never  gives  an  empty,  inactive 
mind,  or  indolent  body,  a  special  call  to  work  for 
Him.  Because  Isaiah  communed  often  with  God 
and  felt  his  personal  responsibility  for  the  condi- 
tion of  Israel,  a  call  came  to  him.^^ 

It  may  be  questioned:  Are  we  not  seeking  to 
explain  away  the  supernatural  element  in  Proph- 
ecy? Of  what  does  the  supernatural  consist  be- 
sides the  power  to  deal  with  natural  forces  and 
energies  in  a  way  not  thought  of  or  not  possible 
to  mankind?  Unthinking  people  take  for  granted 
that  there  can  be  no  connection  between  the  nat- 
ural and  supernatural,  while  as  a  matter  of  fact 

"See  A.  B.  Davidson,  "Old  Testament  Prophec>',"  p.  135-136. 
"Is.  VI:i-8. 


32  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

even  "the  commonest  event  is  as  supernatural  In 
its  causality  as  any  miracle."  ^^ 

The  ideal  Prophetic  state  was  one  of  composure 
and  calmness.  Moses  is  a  classical  example  of  this 
in  the  Old  Testament,  while  the  Man  of  Galilee 
is  the  one  first  thought  of  in  the  New  Testament. 
The  former  with  his  majestic  dignity  left  his  im- 
press on  the  world  for  all  time,  while  the  latter 
looked  down  the  ages  and  without  the  least  dis- 
turbance of  spirit  uttered  those  mighty  truths,  the 
importance  of  which  only  eternity  will  reveal. 

It  may  be  quite  safely  stated  that  unprepared- 
ness  is  the  cause  of  disturbances  and  commotion 
in  the  minds  of  those  privileged  with  special  re- 
ligious visitants.^^  Unless  there  is  perfect  and 
complete  consecration  to  the  Spirit,  a  greater  or 
less  degree  of  excitation  is  the  result.  The  Spirit 
often  raised  a  commotion  in  the  breast  of  King 
Saul  because  there  were  things  there  incompatible 
with  His  working. 

In  all  these  considerations  a  large  allowance 
must  be  made  for  personal  idiosyncrasies.  A  man 
like  Hosea  would  be  affected  differently  from  one 
of  such  a  temperament  as  Jeremiah's.  Also  dif- 
ferent historical  conditions  would  tend  to  develop 
different  latent  powers  and  possibilities. 

Only  those  ideas  which  are  wrought  in  the  mind 

''B.  P.  Bowne,  "Metaphysics,"  p.  289. 

"  See  A.  B.  Davidson,  "Old  Testament  Prophecy,"  p.  126. 


Personality  and  Work  of  the  Prophet    33 

under  mental  pressure  affect  mind  in  a  powerful 
manner.  Novels  written  at  the  rate  of  a  thou- 
sand words  a  day  with  but  little  depth  of  thought 
or  anguish  of  emotion  seldom  move  the  world. 
Not  a  single  utterance  coming  from  the  depths  of 
the  heart  that  deals  with  life  conditions  will  the 
world  let  die.  For  this  reason  the  writings  of 
Isaiah,  as  well  as  those  of  Shakespeare,  Tennyson 
and  Browning,  abide. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE   GENIUS   AND    PHILOSOPHY   OF    HEBREW 
EXPRESSION 

IT  was  of  supreme  moment  that  the  great 
truths  of  religion  should  be  impressed  on  all 
minds,  and  it  is  significant  that  in  the  Bible  may 
be  found  the  five  important  kinds  of  literature, — 
narrative,  argument,  poetry,  history  and  prophecy. 
These  classes  of  literature  are  not  only  found, 
but  an  excellent  type  of  each  class  is  frequently 
manifest.  Says  Lowth,  "Whatever  should  be 
generally  known  and  thoroughly  remembered  was 
written  in  an  enchanting  style  which  was  adorned 
with  figures  and  told  in  sentences  at  once  compre- 
hensive and  harmonious."  ^  Biblical  narrative,  in 
which  history  and  biography  are  prominent,  states 
mighty  truths  in  a  simple,  dignified  manner  to 
appeal  to  untutored  and  uncultured  people.  In 
advance  of  the  simple  historical  writings  are  the 
poetical  books,  while  in  prophecy  the  highest  de- 
velopment of  Old  Testament  literature  is  reached.^ 

^R.  Lowth,  "Sacred  Poetry  of  the  Hebrews,"  p.  52. 
*J.  H.  Gardiner    ("The  Bible   as  Literature,"  p.   127)    gives 
as  a  cause  for  the  intensity  so  often  seen  in  their  writings,  the 

34 


Philosophy  of  Hebrew  Expression         35 

The  Hebrew  Prophets  could  produce  a  great 
literature  because  they  were  able  to  think  deeply 
and  conclusively  on  the  common  themes  of  life. 
This  sense  of  the  immediate  presence  of  God 
made  the  common  things  of  life  peculiarly  signifi- 
cant. It  enabled  them  to  get  a  fresh  vision  which 
is  often  necessary  for  the  correct  expression  of  or- 
dinary truths.  "To  the  Hebrews  the  external 
universe  is  just  a  black  screen  concealing  God.  He 
is  in  all  things  yet  distinct  from  them.  He  is  in 
the  cloud  on  the  top  of  the  mountain.  The 
thunder  is  His  voice.  The  sound  of  the  mulberry 
trees  is  His  'going.'  In  the  wind  He  is  walking 
and  working.  At  every  step  and  in  every  circum- 
stance of  life  the  Hebrews  feel  the  surrounding, 
filling  influence  of  God."  ^ 

The  Hebrews  were  peculiarly  susceptible  to  the 
climate  and  scenery  of  their  native  country.  The 
brooks  of  their  land,  the  rich  colors  of  their  vege- 
tation and  the  stars  of  their  evenings  were  all 
levers  with  which  to  draw  from  them  grand  fig- 
ures and  images.  Hills  and  valleys,  rocks  and 
mountains,  forests  and  seas  were  to  them  more 
than  common  facts  of  every-day  life. 

How  much  Mount  Lebanon  and  Mount  Carmel 

frequent  and  sudden  changes  from  despair  to  hope.  While 
the  Israelites  were  prone  to  depart  from  the  right,  a  portion 
of  them  were  always  thankful  for  deliverance  from  trouble. 
This  spirit  is  seen  especially  in  the  language  of  the  Psalms 
and  renders  many  of  them  vivid  and  sublime. 
'  G.  Gilfillan,  "Bards  of  the  Bible,"  p.  23. 


26  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

have  stood  for  In  the  Prophetic  Writings.  The 
former  stood  for  strength  and  majesty,  the  latter 
for  fertility  and  gracefulness.*  The  one  symbol- 
ized the  state  of  the  Church  (Is.  XXXVII 19, 
XXXV :2);  Jerusalem  (Is.  XXXVII:24);  the 
King  of  Assyria  (Is.  X:34)  ;  the  other  stood  for 
wealth  and  beauty  (Is.  X:i8,  MIcah  VII 114,  Jer. 
IV:26).  Rams,  heifers  and  wild  beasts  are  com- 
pared to  her. 

The  fact  that  the  Hebrews  were  an  agricultural 
and  nomadic  race  deserves  careful  notice.  This 
class  of  people  has  In  every  age  been  least  suscep- 
tible to  corruption.  When  we  find,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  Hebrews,  these  traits  coupled  with  a  dig- 
nity of  soul  that  would  not  allow  them  to  consider 
any  person  disgraced  although  engaged  in  the  most 
menial  tasks,  we  have  a  race  rapidly  approaching 
perfection.  In  Hebrew  history  we  frequently 
read  of  men  being  called  from  the  plow  to  promi- 
nent positions.  (Judges  III  13 1,  I  Sam.  IX 13, 
XI 15,  Amos  I:i,  VII:i4-i5.)  Pursuits  of  this 
character  furnished  the  leisure  necessary  for  medi- 
tation which  would  not  be  possible  to  a  commercial 
people. 

A  race  capable  of  being  so  deeply  moved  by  the 
common  and  prosaic  events  of  life  would  be  thor- 
oughly stirred  by  extraordinary  occurrences.  The 
Hebrews  were  often  Inspired  by  a  flood  of  waters. 

*  See  R.  Lowth,  "Sacred  Poetry  of  the  Hebrews,"  p.  84f. 


Philosophy  of  Hebrew  Expression         37 

The  irregular  contour  of  the  country  made  these  a 
frequent  occurrence.  Water  in  any  unusual  form 
inspired  them.  A  vast  amount  of  rich  and  sub- 
lime literature  is  connected  with  the  story  of  the 
flood.  Even  in  our  day  the  rainbow  has  a  kind  of 
sacredness  because  of  its  frequent  association  with 
the  Bibhcal  account  of  the  flood.  To  the  Hebrews 
it  must  have  meant  vastly  more  than  it  does  to  us. 
"The  Lord,"  says  David,  "sitteth  upon  the 
floods."  Isaiah  speaks  in  the  following  beautiful 
language  concerning  the  compassion  of  God: 

"This  is  as  the  waters  of  Noah  unto  me,  for  as  I  have 
sworn  that  the  waters  of  Noah  should  go  no  more  over 
the  earth,  so  have  I  sworn  not  to  be  wroth  with  thee."^ 

To  a  nation  essentially  religious,  the  priest's  at- 
tire and  the  pomp  and  solemnity  of  the  temple 
sacrifices  would  make  a  powerful  appeal.  The 
marble  and  gold,  the  molten  sea  and  bulls  of  brass, 
the  overshadowed  mercy-seat, — all  these  strangely 
moved  the  Hebrew  imagination.  Here  is  a  sufli- 
cient  foundation  for  the  richest  prose  and  most 
sublime  poetry.  (Is.  LXI:io,  Ps.  LXViy, 
XCIIIii.) 

The  Hebrews,  how^ever,  were  not  compelled  to 
rely  on  a  few  sources  only  for  inspiration.  The 
story  of  the  Creation  profoundly  moved  them  as 
it  has  all  noble  souls.  Says  Jeremiah  (Ch.  IV 123- 
26):— 

■^Is.  LIV:9. 


38  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

I  beheld  the  earth,  and,  lo,  it  was  without  form,  and  void ; 

And  the  heavens,  and  they  had  no  light. 

I  beheld  the  mountains,  and,  lo,  they  trembled. 

I  beheld,  and,  lo,  there  was  no  man 

And  all  the  birds  of  the  heavens  were  fled. 

I  beheld,  and,  lo,  the  fruitful  place  was  a  wilderness, 

And  all  the  cities  thereof  were  broken  down 

At  the  presence  of  the  Lord,  and  by  His  fierce  anger. 

The  story  of  the  destruction  of  Sodom  had  a 
similar  influence  on  the  Hebrew  mind  by  enforc- 
ing the  idea  of  God's  power  and  the  certainty  of 
the  punishment  of  the  wicked.  Isaiah  (Ch. 
XXXIV  :8-io)  gives  in  this  connection  the  follow- 
ing glowing  word-picture : 

For  it  is  the  day  of  the  Lord's  vengeance. 

And  the  year  of  recompense  for  the  controversy  of  Zion. 

And  the  streams  thereof  shall  be  turned  into  pitch, 

And  the  dust  thereof  into  brimstone. 

And  the  land  thereof  shall  become  burning  pitch. 

It  shall  not  be  quenched  night  or  day; 

The  smoke  thereof  shall  go  up  forever ; 

From  generation  to  generation  it  shall  lie  waste ; 

None  shall  pass  through  it  forever  and  ever. 

What  poetic  soul  would  not  be  fired  by  the 
story  of  the  reception  of  the  law  by  Moses  on 
Sinai?  "Sinai,  dark  and  craggy,  surrounded  by  a 
mantle  of  gloom — a  fierce  wind  blowing  around  it 
— torrents  of  rain  descending — the  lightnings  of 
God  playing  on  the  summit — thunders  crashing  in- 
cessantly— and  heard  at  intervals  above  all,  the 
very  voice  of  the  Eternal — the  millions  of  Israel- 


Philosophy  of  Hebrew  Expression         39 

ites  in  the  plain — and  amid  all  this  the  one  lonely 
man  going  up  the  hill — the  utterance  of  the  law 
from  amid  the  gloom — the  seclusion  of  Jehovah 
for  forty  days  on  the  top  of  the  mount — the  finger 
of  God  writing  the  precepts  on  the  two  tables — 
the  passing  of  the  Lord  before  Moses — the  de- 
scent of  the  favored  man,  with  his  face  shining  out 
the  tidings  where  he  had  been — all  this  was  fitted 
to  produce  a  peculiar  and  terrible  poetry."^  The 
traditions  of  Horeb  influenced  most  of  the 
Prophets  and,  through  their  writings,  the  world. 

The  expectation  of  the  Messiah  is  another  po- 
tent influence  in  Hebrew  literature.  The  Messiah, 
or  some  one  to  do  his  work,  had  been  expected  so 
long;  the  wrongs  against  humanity  that  he  was 
supposed  to  eradicate  were  so  many  that  the  belief 
in  a  coming  Redeemer  gave  hope  and  inspiration 
to  the  most  unpoetic.  Infancy  and  childhood 
meant  as  much  to  the  Hebrew  then  as  at  the  pres- 
ent time.  Any  cradle  might  contain  the  Messiah. 
When  He  did  come,  a  helpless  child  in  a  manger, 
some  of  the  finest  poetry  was  written.  (See  Luke 
1:46-55,  68-80.) 

The  distinctive  characteristics  of  Hebrew  ex- 
pression were  not  entirely  due,  however,  to  the 
foregoing  causes.  These  were  the  stimuli.  How 
did  the  Hebrews  express  their  thoughts  with  re- 
gard to  them? 

"G.  Gilfillan,  "Bards  of  the  Bible,"  p.  20. 


40  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

We  observe,  at  first,  an  Intense  religious  and 
ethical  element  running  through  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. This  was  the  unifying  agent  making  It  the 
foundation  of  a  great  literature.  One  writer  says, 
''From  the  Song  of  Deborah  to  Daniel  the  religion 
of  Jehovah  Is  the  motive  Inspiring  the  writers.""^ 
We  observe  further,  "Religion,  a  particular  faith 
developing  In  clearness.  Intensity,  comprehensive- 
ness and  sublimity,  binds  the  whole  Into  a  unity 
so  close  that  to  eliminate  a  book  or  a  part  of  a 
book  Is  as  Impossible  as  undesirable."  ^ 

The  number  and  kind  of  words  In  the  vocabu- 
lary of  the  Hebrews  profoundly  Influenced  their 
literature.  Their  vocabulary  was  not  large,  but  ex- 
pressive. The  Hebrews  were  not  far  removed 
from  nature,  and  were  not  embarrassed  with  a 
plethora  of  words  for  every  Idea.  They  were  not 
skilled  in  dialectics.  The  sentences  expressive  of 
their  emotional  and  sensuous  life  had  not  suffered 
from  analysis.  The  essential  words  of  their  life 
had  not  lost  from  dissection  their  rhythm  and  full- 
ness of  meaning.  Gardiner  says,  "In  this  early 
Hebrew  poetry  there  Is  a  wonderful  spontaneity 
and  freshness.  It  gives  the  impression  of  being 
born  In  the  very  heart  of  joy  or  grief  or  tri- 
umph."^ The  Hebrew  vocabulary  contains  but 
few  abstract  terms,  while  concrete  expressions  and 

■^  Schaff-Herzog,  "Ency.  of  Religious  Knowledge,"  Art.     "He- 
brew Literature." 


""The  Bible  as  Literature,"  p.  96. 


Philosophy  of  Hebrew  Expression         41 

words  pertaining  to  the  world  of  sense  and  ma- 
terial things  abound.  The  Hebrew's  language, 
like  his  life,  is  one  of  vigor  and  energy.  Sim- 
plicity and  directness  characterize  his  utterances. 
Figurative  and  pictorial  elements  render  them  in- 
teresting. 

The  style  Is  vigorous  because  the  verb  predomi- 
nates. Herder,  who  has  made  a  careful  study  of 
the  subject,  says:  "The  verb  is  almost  the  whole 
of  the  language.  In  other  words,  everything  lives 
and  acts.  The  nouns  are  derived  from  verbs,  and 
in  a  certain  sense  are  still  verbs.  They  are,  as  it 
were,  living  beings  extracted  and  moulded  while 
their  radical  source  itself  was  in  a  state  of  living 
energy."  ^^  This  makes  the  Hebrew  language  rich 
in  motion,  transition  and  endurance  and  "vibrant 
with  speaking,  surging  life."  ^^ 

Another  reason  for  the  Hebrews'  characteristic 
vigor  of  style  is  that  they  sought  "to  say  the  whole 
at  once."^^  One  word  is  frequently  equivalent  to 
four  or  five  of  ours.  The  important  part  of  the 
word  is  in  the  center,  while  sonorous  prefixes  lend 
strength  to  the  main  idea.^^ 

We  have  already  received  glimpses  of  the  He- 
brew's religious  nature.  It  must  not  be  forgotten 
that  this  was  the  all-absorbing  element  of  his  life. 
He  saw  religion  and  the  sacred  in  everything.     If 

''J.  G.  Herder,  "Spirit  of  Hebrew  Poetry,"  p.  29. 

"^Ihid.  ''Ibid.  ^'Ibid. 


42  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

the  Hebrew  was  not  religious  he  was  nothing. 
Such  a  nature  demanded  and  found  a  correspond- 
ing element  in  everything  with  which  he  associated. 
Every  transaction,  whether  relating  to  either  the 
civil  or  domestic  life,  must  have  the  stamp  of  di- 
vine approval. 

Dramatic,  and  to  a  certain  degree  epic  poetry, 
require  the  power  of  objectivity  for  their  produc- 
tion. This  the  Hebrews  possessed  in  a  very  lim- 
ited degree,  for  they  were  essentially  introspective, 
subjective  and  individual.  They  desired  and 
obtained  a  literature  that  might,  through  song 
and  the  dance,  be  intimately  connected  with  their 
religion  and  family  life.  The  marriage  of  his 
daughter,  the  death  of  his  son,  or  some  national 
triumph  would  be  to  the  Hebrew  an  occasion  for 
poetry  (Is.  V:i-2,  2  Sam.  1:17-29,  Jer.  IX 117-20, 
Gen.  IV:23,  XVI  :ii  and  XXV 123),  and  this 
must  be  lyric.  Lowth  says,  "We  may  be  indebted 
to  them  (the  Hebrews)  for  the  accurately  meas- 
ured verses  and  feet.  There  is  an  inherent  tend- 
ency in  people  to  make  the  modulation  of  the 
language,  the  music  of  the  voice  and  the  motion  of 
the  body  correspond."^^ 

The  beginnings  of  every  literature  worthy  the 
name  have  been  in  poetical  form.  The  early  his- 
tory of  the  Persians  and  Arabs  was  in  verse.  The 
"Beowulf"  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  the  literature  of 

""Sacred  Poetry  of  the  Hebrews,"  p.  52. 


Philosophy  of  Hebrew  Expression         43 

the  Trouveres  and  Troubadours  of  France,  the 
"Cid"  of  Spain  and  the  "Nibelungenlied"  of 
Germany,  were  all  in  poetic  form.  The  reason 
for  this  may  be,  as  we  have  suggested  in  the  case 
of  the  Hebrews,  the  close  connection  between 
music,  religion  and  poetry.  More  than  this,  "in 
the  early  history  of  all  peoples  literary  style  must 
be  such  as  to  be  able  to  reach  the  ear  and  the  pas- 
sions while  assisting  the  memory."^^ 

An  important  characteristic  of  Hebrew  verse  is 
what  is  termed  parallelism,  first  discovered  by 
Bishop  Robert  Lowth,  in  1753.  There  is  a  sense 
connection  or  a  rhyming  of  thought  between  the 
lines. 

Parallelism  requires  two  clauses  of  approxi- 
mately, though  not  necessarily,  the  same  length. 
"The  two  divisions  of  the  verse  confirm,  elevate 
and  strengthen  each  other.  .  .  .  One  precept 
confirms  the  other  as  if  the  father  were  giving  in- 
struction to  his  son  and  the  mother  repeated  it.  .  .  . 
It  varies  the  precept  and  explains,  or  impresses 
it  upon  the  heart."^^  "So  soon  as  the  heart  gives 
way  to  emotions,  wave  follows  upon  wave,  and 
that  is  parallelism.  The  heart  is  never  exhausted; 
it  has  forever  something  new  to  say.  So  soon  as 
the  first  wave  has  passed  away,  or  broken  itself 
upon  the  rocks,  the  second  swells  again  and  returns 

"R.  Lowth,  ''Sacred  Poetry  of  the  Hebrews,"  p.   57. 

"J.  G.  Herder,  "Spirit  of  Hebrew  Poetry,"  Vol.  I,  p.  39  ff. 


44  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

as  before.  This  pulsation  of  nature,  this  breathing 
of  emotion,  appears  in  all  the  language  of  pas- 
sion."!^ 

In  synonymous  parallelism  the  sentiment  of  the 
first  line  is  repeated  or  echoed  in  varied  form  in 
the  second.  The  thought  in  the  second  line  is  not 
necessarily  identical  with  that  in  the  first,  but  is 
parallel  to  it: — 

Remember,  O  Lord,  what  is  come  upon  us: 
Consider,  and  behold  our  reproach.^^ 

Often  the  second  member  repeats  only  a  part  of 
the  first: — 

Woe  to  them  that  join  house  to  house, 
That  lay  field  to  field.^^ 

Sometimes  the  second  member  contains  an  expan-' 
sion  of  the  first: — 

Thou  wentest  forth  for  the  salvation  of  Thy  people, 
Even  for  salvation  with  Thine  Anointed ; 
Thou  woundest  the  head  of  the  house  of  the  wicked, 
By  discovering  the  foundation  unto  the  neck.^*^ 

In  the  second  class,  or  anthithetic  parallelism, 
the  thought  contained  in  the  first  line  is  confirmed 
by  a  contrasted  thought  in  the  second  line.     The 

"J.  G.  Herder,  "Spirit  of  Hebrew  Poetry,"  Vol.  I,  p.  39  ff. 
'«Lam.  V:i.  "Is.  V:8.  '°Hab.  Ul:iz. 


Philosophy  of  Hebrew  Expression         45 

tenth  to  fifteenth  chapters  of  Proverbs  contain 
many  examples  of  this  class : — 

A  wise  son  maketh  a  glad  father: 

But  a  foolish  son  is  the  heaviness  of  his  mother.^^ 

Day  unto  day  uttereth  speech, 

And  night  unto  night  showeth  knowledge.^^ 

Isaiah  LXV:  13-14  contains  an  excellent  example 
of  this  class.  An  example  of  climactic  parallelism, 
a  variation  of  the  antithetic,  is  as  follows : — 

He  hath  cut  off  in  his  fierce  anger  all  the  horn  of  Israel : 
He  hath   drawn   back  his   right  hand   from   before   the 

enemy, 
And  he  burned  against  Jacob  like  a  flaming  fire,  which 

devoureth  round  about.^^ 

In  the  third  class,  or  synthetic  parallelism,  the 
similarity  of  thought  is  not  as  evident  as  in  the 
earlier  classes.  Form  is  prominent  here  rather 
than  thought: — 

The  mountains  saw  thee  and  they  trembled: 
The  overflowing  of  the  water  passed  by.^* 
Our  necks  are  under  persecution: 
We  labour,  and  have  no  rest.^^ 

Parallelism  is  an  aid  in  making  the  Bible  easy 
to  translate  and  read.    Here  is  found  both  fulness 


Prov.   X:i.  =^  Psalm   XIX :2.  ""  Lam.   11:3. 

Hab.  Illrio.  ""Lam.  V :$. 


46  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

and  melody  of  expression.  In  this  characteristic 
of  Hebrew  poetry,  we  find  the  Hebrews  true  to 
their  tradition  of  keeping  close  to  nature,  for  many 
have  claimed  to  see  parallelism  in  nature  herself; 
e.g.,  winter  and  summer,  day  and  night. 

A  significant  fact  is  that  the  Hebrew  nature  was 
narrow  but  intense.  It  has  ever  been  noted  for 
the  power  of  penetration  which  belongs  to  single- 
ness of  purpose.  Possessed  of  high  aspirations 
and  noble  emotions,  these  were  not  spoiled  by 
being  too  extensive.  The  essential  truth  for 
which  it  stood, — the  unity  of  God, — modified,  uni- 
fied and  deepened,  not  only  the  literary,  but  every 
other  phase  of  its  existence. 

A  necessary  requirement  for  the  production  of 
lasting  poetry  or  any  other  abiding  literature  is 
deep  emotion  or  agitation  on  the  part  of  the  writer. 
It  is  claimed  -^  that  all  great  men  of  genius  had 
emotional  disturbances  which  affected  their  mental 
natures.  Mohammed,  Cromwell,  Napoleon  and 
Caesar  are  celebrated  instances  of  this.  Only 
those  truths  that  are  deeply  felt  and  enthusiasti- 
cally expressed  are  capable  of  moving  mankind 
powerfully.  The  noblest  characteristics  of  the 
Hebrew  race,  coupled  with  a  thorough-going  con- 
secration and  sense  of  duty  to  mankind,  fitted 
Isaiah,  Hosea,  Amos  and  Joel  to  write  imperish- 
able truths.     The  word  of  the  Lord  abideth  for- 

^^J.  H.  Gardiner,  "The  Bible  as  Literature,"  p.  215. 


Philosophy  of  Hebrew  Expression         47 

ever,  because  there  is  so  much  in  it  that  reaches 
man's  deepest  soul  and  fits  his  every  condition. 
The  prophecies  are  the  highest  peak  in  the  writ- 
ings of  men  ^^  because  they  deal  most  comprehen- 
sively with  the  problems  of  life  and  destiny. 

The  deep  feeling,  violent  agitation  and  long- 
ing for  comprehensive  expression  found  in  the 
Hebrew  race  are  responsible  for  the  figures  in 
the  Prophetical  Writings.  To  use  the  language 
of  Gilfillan,  "The  proof  of  great  thoughts  is,  Will 
they  translate  into  figured  and  sensuous  expres- 
sion ?  Will  nature  recognize,  own  and  clothe  them 
as  if  they  were  her  own,  or  must  they  stand  small, 
shivering  and  naked  before  her  unopened  door?"^^ 
Great  thoughts  prompted  by  deep  emotions  will 
carry  figures  without  seeming  to  be  burdened.  The 
crying  necessity  for  improvement  in  society  and  re- 
ligion so  wrought  upon  the  sensitive  souls  of  the 
Prophets  that  ordinary  prose  was  inadequate  to 
express  their  ideas.  Instead  of  their  figures  being 
artificial  or  monotonous  they  were  the  spontaneous, 
outburst  of  souls  laden  with  the  sins  of  the  peo- 
ple. The  connection  between  figures  and  the 
thoughts  of  the  Prophets  seemed  necessary  and 
natural. 

Did  they  wish  striking  expressions  of  joy  or 
pathos,  simplicity  or  dignity,  discouragement  or 

"J.  H.  Gardiner,  "The  Bible  as  Literature,"  p.  215. 
'' "Bards  of  the  Bible,"  p.  33. 


48  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

enthusiasm,  figures  of  speech  satisfied  every  re- 
quirement. Did  they  wish  to  inspire  hope  or  com- 
pel regret  or  remorse,  figures  are  the  effective 
means.  It  would  be  impossible  for  Isaiah  to  ex- 
press as  much  without  the  use  of  imagery  as  he 
does  in  the  following  phrases : — 

"Laden  with  iniquity,"  "I  am  full  of  burnt  offerings," 
"hands  are  full  of  blood,"  "garden  that  hath  no  water," 
"swords  into  plowshares  and  spears  into  pruning  hooks," 
"beat  my  people  to  pieces,"  "draw  iniquity  with  cords." 

In  such  expressions  words  approximate  living 
things. 

One  can  best  judge  the  character  of  a  stream 
by  going  to  its  source.  In  like  manner,  because 
we  have  acquainted  ourselves  with  the  characters 
and  motives  of  the  Hebrew  people,  we  may  more 
correctly  estimate  the  writings  of  their  Prophets. 


CHAPTER  IV 

ISAIAH,    HIS  TIMES  AND   STYLE 

WE  have  beheld  a  portion  of  the  large  num- 
ber of  splendid  and  tremendous  forces  that 
enter  into  the  making  of  a  Prophet.  It  is  para- 
doxical that  so  little  is  known  concerning  the  most 
admired,  and  In  some  respects,  the  greatest  He- 
brew Prophet.  The  writings  of  Isaiah^  are,  how- 
ever, his  sufficient  memorial. 

He  was  married,  raised  a  family,  and  'Vas  a 
citizen  if  not  a  native  of  Jerusalem."  ^  This  city 
had  a  marked  influence  on  his  career.  George 
Adam  Smith  says  Jerusalem  is  the  "center  and  re- 
turn of  all  his  thoughts,  the  hinge  of  the  history 
for  his  time,  and  the  summit  of  those  brilliant 
hopes  with  which  he  fills  the  future."  ^ 

God  wished  to  teach  Israel  in  the  Prophetical 
era  some  needful  lessons.     He  was  aided  In  this 

^  Anything  said  here  must  not  be  understood  as  being  opposed 
to  the  generally  accepted  theory  of  two  Isaiahs.  This  theory 
helps  to  account  for  differences  found  in  the  literary  style  of  the 
book.  The  one  whose  call  is  mentioned  in  the  sixth  chapter 
is  referred  to  by  us  unless  a  statement  to  the  contrary  is  made 
or  implied. 

'"Biblical   Illustrator,"  "Isaiah,"  Vol.   I,  p.   6. 

'  G.  A.  Smith,  "Expositors  Bible,"  "Isaiah,"  Vol.  I. 

49 


50  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

by  her  two  greedy  and  powerful  enemies,  Egypt 
and  Assyria.  During  the  major  part  of  this  epoch, 
Israel  was  able  to  exist  only  because  her  enemies 
were  troubled  by  other  nations  or  because  she 
combined  with  other  small  states  for  mutual  pro- 
tection. When  she  enjoyed  peace  it  was  often  be- 
cause her  enemies  had  grown  weak.  Security  and 
prosperity  always  led  in  time  through  "commer- 
cial development  to  moral  laxity  and  religious  un- 
faithfulness."* It  was  while  struggling  against 
other  nations  or  during  her  moral  and  religious 
decline  that  the  succor  of  the  Prophets  was  most 
noticeable.  Israel  needed  the  Prophets,  and  be- 
cause of  their  abandonment  to  her  good  and  God's 
purposes  they  gained  literary  ability  and  moral 
and  religious  power. 

Judah  was  more  fortunately  situated  than  Israel 
with  regard  to  annoyances  and  enemies.  She  could 
not  stand  prosperity,  however,  but  often  drifted 
into  a  condition  in  which  reHgion,  instead  of  being 
a  matter  of  pious  fervor  was  one  of  diplomacy  or 
political  fear. 

The  Prophets,  by  their  successful  handling  of 
these  political  and  religious  problems,  demon- 
strated their  capacity  and  capability.  No  other 
Prophet  surpassed  Isaiah  in  this  important  work. 
He  was  both  an  astute  politician  and  a  devoted 
religionist.    He  saw  readily  and  comprehensively, 

*  Catholic  Ency.,  Art.  "History  of  Israel." 


Isaiah,  His   Times  and  Style  51 

the  predicaments  in  which  the  Kingdom  was 
placed.  He  possessed  courage  and  reliance  on 
God  in  sufficient  degree  to  inspire  others.  Israel 
did  not  suffer  unduly  when  she  followed  his  coun- 
sel. 

The  sixth  chapter  of  the  Prophecies  records  an 
important  experience  in  Isaiah's  career.  He  was 
a  keen  observer  of  political  situations  and  the 
noticeable  difference  between  the  beginning  and 
termination  of  King  Uzziah's  reign  "was  the  en- 
franchisement of  his  faith."^  The  vision  that 
Isaiah  received  gave  him  a  distinct  view  of  his  own 
inconsistencies  and  of  the  sin  in  the  surrounding 
civilization.^  Henceforth  he  must  speak  out  what 
is  in  his  heart. 

The  Isaiac  Prophecies  have  been  the  literary  |' 
wonder  of  the  ages.    We  find  in  them  striking  evi- 1 
dences  of  unsurpassed  powers  of  description.  The 
ability  to  penetrate  the  thickest  veil  and  to  see  | 
conditions  as  they  were ;  to  peer  into  the  recesses     ^' 
of  the  human  heart;  to  pierce  the  darkness  of  the 
past,  present  and  future — these  are  the  reasons  for 
this   coveted  power  of   description.      (See   Chs. 
XXXIV:ii-i5,XIII:i9-22,X:28-32.) 

The  Prophecies  of  Isaiah  exhibit  throughout  a 
wonderful  energy  of  expression  and  vigor  of 
style.    Nothing  is  overdone.    Every  phase  of  the 

■*  G.  A.  Smith,  "Expositors  Bible,"  "Isaiah,"  Vol.  I,  p.  59. 
"See  G.  Matheson,  "Representative  Men  of  the  Bible,"  Vol. 
II,  p.  270  ff. 


52  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

ubiquitous  treatment  of  the  subjects  has  been 
touched  just  enough.  The  strongest  terms  have 
been  sought  for  and  found.  The  leading  ideas 
are  the  most  profound  that  mankind  has  ever  pon- 
dered;— the  majesty  of  God  (Chs.  II,  III,  VI  and 
XII)  ;  the  sinfulness  of  men  (Chs.  I,  III,  V  and 
XXX)  ;  salvation  for  a  remnant  (Chs.  I,  IV,  XI, 
XIV,  XXVIII,  XXIX,  XXXIandXXXVII)  ;  ref- 
uge in  God  alone  (Chs.  I,  VIII,  IX,  and  XVIII). 
Glowing  tributes  have  been  paid  by  scholars 
to  the  writers  of  these  Prophecies.  We  append  a 
few:  "I  felt,"  says  Sir  Wm.  Herschel,  "after  a 
considerable  sweep  through  the  sky  with  my  tele- 
scope, Sirius  announcing  himself  from  a  great  dis- 
tance; and  at  length  he  rushed  into  the  field  of 
view  with  all  the  brightness  of  the  rising  sun,  and 
I  had  to  withdraw  my  eyes  from  the  dazzling 
object.  So  have  we,  looking  out  from  our  'specu- 
lar tower,'  seen  from  a  great  way  off  the  approach 
of  the  'mighty  orb  of  song,' — the  divine  Isaiah — 
and  have  felt  awestruck  in  the  path  of  his  com- 
ing." ^  Ewald  exalts  him  in  the  following  lan- 
guage: "In  Isaiah  we  see  prophetic  authorship 
reaching  its  culminating  point.  Everything  con- 
spired to  raise  him  to  an  elevation  to  which  no 
Prophet  either  before  or  after  could  attain  as  a 
writer.  Among  the  other  Prophets  each  of  the 
more  important  is  distinguished  by  some  particu- 

'Gilfillan,  "Bards  of  the  Bible,"  p.   127. 


Isaiah,  His   Times  and  Style  53 

lar  excellence  or  some  one  peculiar  talent;  in 
Isaiah  all  kinds  of  talent  and  all  beauties  of  pro- 
phetic discourse  meet  together  so  as  mutually  to 
temper  and  qualify  each  other;  it  is  not  so  much 
any  single  feature  that  distinguishes  him  as  the 
symmetry  and  perfection  of  the  whole. "^  Driver 
says,  ''His  literary  style  is  chaste  and  dignified. 
The  language  is  choice  but  devoid  of  all  artificial- 
ity or  stiffness.  Every  sentence  is  compact  and 
forceful.  The  rhythm  is  stately  and  the  periods 
are  finely  rounded.  His  Prophecies  always  form 
artistic  wholes  adequate  to  the  effect  intended, 
having  no  features  overdrawn.  He  has  the  power 
of  adapting  his  language  to  the  occasion  and  bring- 
ing home  to  his  hearers  what  he  would  have  them 
understand.  And  he  can  always  point  to  the 
truth  which  he  desires  to  impress  by  some  apt 
figure  or  illustration."^ 

The  rich  vocabulary  indicates  effective  literary 
power  coupled  with  a  full  and  exact  command  of 
the  subject.  Isaiah  is  fond  of  concrete  and  objec- 
tive terms  and  expressions.  The  following  ex- 
amples will  indicate  this  as  well  as  his  passion  for 
imagery : — 

"Oak  whose  leaf  fadeth,"  "garden  that  hath  no  water," 
"nations  shall  flow,"   "land  is  full  of  silver  and  gold," 

^"Propheten  des  Alten  Bundes,"  p.  i66. 

®  S.  R.  Driver,  "Introduction  to  Literature  of  Old  Testament," 
p.  215  ff. 


54  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

"gates  shall  lament  and  mourn,"  "multitudes  are  parched 
with  thirst,"  "wickedness  burneth  as  fire." 


As  a  rule  the  sentence  structure  of  these  Proph- 
ecies is  simple.  Some  sentences  begin  with  clauses 
which  are  followed  by  the  main  statement.  Many 
are  brief  and  pointed.  A  portion  of  the  sentences 
are  compound.  In  these  coordinate  conjunctions 
are  freely  used.  Parallelism  may  be  frequently 
seen.  The  following  will  serve  as  examples  of  the 
sentence  structure: — 


"With  the  breath  of  his  lips  shall  he  slay  the  wicked," 
"the  wolf  shall  dwell  with  the  lamb,"  "the  sucking  child 
shall  play  on  the  hole  of  the  asp,"  "thou  art  cast  forth 
awaj^  from  thy  sepulchre,  like  an  abominable  branch," 
"the  counsel  of  the  wisest  counsellors  of  Pharaoh  is  be- 
come brutish,"  "thou  art  wholly  gone  up  to  the  house- 
tops," "he  shall  be  a  father  to  the  inhabitants  of  Jeru- 
salem," "I  will  fasten  him  as  a  nail  in  a  sure  place,"  "we 
have  made  a  covenant  with  death,  and  with  hell  are  we 
at  agreement,"  "I  give  waters  in  the  wilderness,  and 
rivers  in  the  desert." 


It  is  in  imagery  that  these  Prophecies  excel. 
Every  paragraph  and  nearly  every  verse  contains 
some  kind  of  figure.  The  Prophecies  of  Isaiah 
contain  as  many,  perhaps,  as  the  remaining  Pro- 
phetical books. 


Isaiah,  His  Times  and  Style  S5 

Figures 
Figures  of  Resemblance 

A  figure  of  Resemblance  consists  in  pointing 
out  or  asserting  a  likeness  between  things  in  other 
respects  unlike. 

The  Prophecies  of  Isaiah  contain  every  kind 
and  grade  of  figures.  The  larger  number  is  classed 
with  those  of  resemblance.  These  writings  con- 
tain some  of  the  most  vigorous  and  graceful  met- 
aphors and  similes  to  be  found  in  the  English  lan- 
guage. 

SIMILE 

The  simile  is  used  to  compare  unknown  with 
known  objects  or  as  an  aid  in  amplifying  the  sub- 
ject in  hand.    Several  examples  follow: — 

He  will  surely  violently  turn  and  toss  thee  like  a  ball 

Into  a  large  country.^^ 

And  I  will  fasten  him  as  a  nail  in  a  sure  place.^^ 

When  Isaiah  wishes  to  impress  the  manner  in 
which  God  deals  with  the  dominant  heathen,  he 
says : — 

The  earth  shall  reel  to  and  fro  like  a  drunkard.^^ 

'"Is.  XXII:i8.  "Is.  XXII:23.  "Is.  XXIV:2o. 


S6  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

At  times  he  exults  in  the  goodness  of  God  and 
breaks  forth  in  the  following  language : — 

And  Moab  shall  be  trodden  down  under  him, 

Even  as  straw  is  trodden  down  for  the  dunghill. 

And  he  shall  spread  forth  his  hands  in  the  midst  of  them, 

As  he  that  swimmeth  spreadeth  forth  his  hands  to  swim/^ 

A  very  illuminating  and  familiar  figure  is  used 
to  teach  the  vanity  of  Israel's  reliance  on  Egypt, 
and  trusting  in  her  own  devices.  Here,  as  in 
several  places,  the  figures  are  curiously  mixed: — 

Therefore  this  iniquity  shall  be  to  you  as  a  breach  ready 

to  fall, 
Swelling  out  in  a  high  wall, 
Whose  breaking  cometh  suddenly  at  an  instant. 
And  he  shall  break  it  as  the  breaking  of  the  potter's  vessel 
That  is  broken  in  pieces.^* 

In  the  same  chapter  we  have  an  effective  figure, 
a  mixture  of  simile  and  hyperbole : — 

One  thousand  shall  flee  at  the  rebuke  of  one; 

At  the  rebuke  of  five  shall  ye  flee: 

Till  ye  be  left  as  a  beacon  upon  the  top  of  a  mountain 

And  as  an  ensign  on  a  hill.^^ 

To  indicate  the  prosperity  and  illumination  that 
will  come  with  the  return  of  God's  grace,  Isaiah 
says : — 

Moreover  the  light  of  the  moon  shall  be  as  the  light  of 
the  sun, 

"Is.  XXV:io-ii.  "  Is.  XXX:i3-i4.  ''Is.  XXXtij. 


Isaiah,  His   Times  and  Style  57 

And  the  light  of  the  sun  shall  be  sevenfold, 

As  the  light  of  seven  days, 

In  the  day  that  the  Lord  bindeth  up  the  breach  of  His 

people, 
And  healeth  the  stroke  of  their  wound. ^^ 

The  light  of  truth  will  shine  with  such  brillianqr 
that  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  globe  will  be 
reached.  These  glorious  conditions  will  prevail 
when  God  takes  complete  control. 

An  appropriate,  comforting  and  well-known 
simile  is  found  in  the  thirty-second  chapter.  It 
teaches  in  an  effective  manner  the  power  of  in- 
fluence and  personality: — 

And  a  man  shall  be  as  an  hiding  place  from  the  wind, 

And  a  covert  from  the  tempest; 

As  rivers  of  water  in  a  dry  place  ; 

As  the  shadow  of  a  great  rock  in  a  weary  land.^''' 

When  the  gracious  reign  of  God  shall  come 
upon  the  earth: — 

The  heavens  shall  be  rolled  together  as  a  scroll: 
And  all  their  host  shall  fall  down. 
As  the  leaf  falleth  off  from  the  vine. 
And  as  a  falling  fig  from  a  fig  tree.^® 

This  is  more  nearly  literal  than  would  at  first 
appear.  In  ancient  times  books  were  made  in  the 
form  of  a  scroll  that  could  be  rolled  into  small 
compass. 

"  Is.  XXX  .26,  "  Is.  XXXII  :2.  "  Is.  XXXIV  :4. 


58  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

In  describing  conditions  of  happiness  in  the 
future  Zion,  Isaiah  says : — 

Then  shall  the  lame  man  leap  as  a  hart, 
And  the  tongue  of  the  dumb  sing.^^ 

The  work  of  the  great  Physician  is  to  extend 
to  every  part  of  the  nature, — physical,  intellectual 
and  spiritual. 

In  the  East  the  quick  withering  of  the  delicate 
spring  grass  is  proverbial.  By  many  Hebrew 
writers  "grass"  is  a  symbol  of  things  fleeting  and 
evanescent.  When  Hezekiah  prays  for  deliver- 
ance from  Assyria,  Jehovah  answers,  and  Isaiah 
interprets  a  portion  of  His  will  in  the  following 
language;  referring  to  the  premature  destruction 
of  the  Assyrians,  he  says : — 

They  were  as  the  grass  of  the  field  and  as  the  green  herb. 
As  the  grass  on  the  housetops,  and  as  corn 
Blasted  before  it  be  grown  up.-^ 

The  following  simile  indicates  Isaiah's  accurate 
knowledge  of  animal  life.  He  has  the  naturahst's 
unusually  keen  powers  of  observation. 

I  reckoned  till  morning,  that,  as  a  lion  so  will  he  break 

all  my  bones: 
Like  a  crane  or  a  swallow,  so  did  I  chatter ; 
I  did  mourn  as  a  dove.-^ 

"Is.  XXXV:6.      '°Is.  XXXVII:27.      *"  Is.  XXXVIII:i3-i4. 


Isaiah,  His   Times  and  Style  59 

A  very  comforting  promise  is  the  following; 
It  is  particularly  beautiful  and  reassuring: — 

He  shall  feed  his  flock  like  a  shepherd.^^ 

In  a  simile  that  borders  on  the  sublime  Isaiah 
seeks  to  impress  the  incomparable  greatness  of 
Jehovah: — 

It  is  he  that  sitteth  upon  the  circle  of  the  earth, 
And  the  inhabitants  thereof  are  as  grasshoppers; 
That  stretcheth  out  the  heavens  as  a  curtain, 
And  spreadeth  them  out  as  a  tent  to  dwell  in.^^ 

The  characteristic  power  of  Jehovah  is  seen  in 
the  following  forceful  imagery: — 

The  Lord  shall  go  forth  as  a  mighty  man, 
He  shall  stir  up  jealousy  like  a  man  of  war.^* 

In  connection  with  such  passages,  the  merciful 
side  of  God's  nature  must  not  be  forgotten.  As 
every  right-minded  magistrate  has  the  good  of 
the  law-abiding  at  heart,  when  he  punishes  a  crimi- 
nal, so  God  punishes  rebellious  nations  for  the 
good  of  His  people. 

A  comforting  promise  to  repentant  sinners  is : — 

I  have  blotted  out,  as  a  thick  cloud  thy  transgressions. 
And  as  a  cloud  thy  sins.-^ 

"Is.  XL:ii.      ^Is.  XL:22.     "Is.  XLIIiis-     '^  Is.  XLIV:22. 


6o  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

When  we  come  to  the  latter  part  of  the  Prophe- 
cies, the  figures  are  both  fitting  and  graceful. 
Nothing  but  a  great  soul  with  wonderful  vision 
could  have  produced  the  following: — 

O  that  thou  hadst  hearkened  to  my  commandments! 

Then  had  thy  peace  been  as  a  river, 

And  thy  righteousness  as  the  waves  of  the  sea: 

Thy  seed  also  had  been  as  the  sand, 

And  the  offspring  of  thy  bowels  like  the  gravel  thereof.^* 

Those  who  trust  in  Jehovah  are  not  to  fear  what 
man  can  do  unto  them.  His  past  dealings  with 
men  indicate  that  He  may  be  relied  upon  for  pro- 
tection. 

Neither  be  ye  afraid  of  their  revilings. 

For  the  moth  shall  eat  them  up  like  a  garment, 

And  the  worm  shall  eat  them  like  wool.^^ 

METAPHOR 

Metaphor,  like  simile  and  allegory,  is  founded 
on  resemblance.  It  is  more  abridged  and  pointed 
than  either  of  these.  Clark  ^^  says,  "It  multiplies 
meaning  without  multiplying  words.'*  Perhaps  no 
more  beautiful  thing  was  ever  said  of  any  class  of 
figures  than,  "Of  all  the  figures  of  speech,  none 
approaches  so  nearly  to  painting."  ^^     Metaphor 

^Is.  XLVIII:i8,  19.  "Is.  LI 7  and  8. 

**  "Practical  Rhetoric,"  p.  190,  Edition  1891. 
**  Blair's  "Lectures  on  Rhetoric,"  p.   115. 


Isaiah,  His   Times  and  Style  6i 

reaches  the  depths  of  one's  nature  with  few  words. 
Isaiah  has  added  a  new  importance  to  metaphors 
by  a  judicious  use  of  them. 

Chapter  VII  :i 8  contains  a  striking  and  very 
suggestive  metaphor: — 

"Assyria  is  a  swarm  of  bees." 

In  Chapter  VIII  ly-S,  Assyria  is  compared  to  a 
raging  stream  which,  like  the  Euphrates,  overflows 
its  banks. 

Now  therefore  behold  the  Lord  bringeth  up  upon  them, 
The  waters  of  the  river,  strong  and  many. 
Even  the  King  of  Assyria,  and  all  his  glory; 
And  he  shall  come  up  over  all  his  channels. 
And  go  over  all  his  banks. 
And  he  shall  pass  through  Judah; 
He  shall  overflow  and  go  over; 
He  shall  reach  even  to  the  neck: 

And  the  stretching  out  of  his  wings  shall  fill  the  breadth 
of  thy  land,  O  Immanuel. 

Isaiah  perceives  the  coming  defeat  of  Syria  and 
tells  Ahaz  that  he  need  not  fear. 

In  the  same  day  shall  the  Lord  shave  with  a  razor  that 
is  hired, 

Namely,  by  them  beyond  the  river,  by  the  King  of  As- 
syria, 

The  head  and  the  hair  of  the  feet.^^ 

A  brief  but  classical  metaphor  Is : — 

"All  flesh  is  grass."  ^^ 
""Is.  VII :20.  ""Is.  XL:6. 


62  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

Others  are: — 


And  thy  neck  is  an  iron  sinew, 
And  thy  brow  brass. ^^ 
And  made  me  a  polished  shaft; 
In  His  quiver  hath  He  hid  me.^^ 
For  thy  Maker  is  thine  husband.^* 


PERSONIFICATION 

By  this  figure,  according  to  Baln^^  and  Blair,^® 
"life  and  action  are  attributed  to  inanimate 
things."  Personification  differs  from  simile  and 
metaphor  in  that  the  latter  deals  with  resem- 
blances between  visible  and  invisible  objects,  while 
the  former  shows  the  relation  of  similarity  be- 
tween cause  and  effect. 

Although  this  figure  abounds  in  poetry,  it  is 
frequently  used  in  prose  and  common  conversation. 
In  the  "smiling  of  the  fields"  and  the  "thirsting  of 
the  earth"  we  see  how  almost  unconsciously  per- 
sonification is  used  in  daily  language. 

According  to  Blair  there  are  several  grades  of 
personification;  in  one  grade  qualities  of  living 
creatures  are  ascribed  to  inanimate  objects;  e.g., 
"A  raging  storm"  and  a  "cruel  disaster."  When 
inanimate  objects  are  represented  as  those  having 
life,  we  have  a  form  of  personification  that  is  the 

"Is.  XLVIII:4.  ^Is.  XLIX:2.  '*Is.  LIV:5. 

"'"Rhetoric."  ""^  Ibid. 


Isaiah,  His   Times  and  Style  63 

life  and  soul  of  poetry.  The  strongest  form  of 
personification  consists  of  objects  being  repre- 
sented as  talking  or  as  listening  while  we  speak. 
In  the  following  brief  figure  there  is  sufficient  dig- 
nity in  the  idea  of  "earth"  to  lend  strength. 

The  earth  mourneth  and  fadeth  away.^'' 

In  Chapter  XXIV 123,  Isaiah  shows  by  an  ex- 
pressive figure  the  splendor  of  Christ's  coming: — 

Then  the  moon  shall  be  confounded  and  the  sun  ashamed, 
When  the  Lord  of  Hosts  shall  reign 
In  Mount  Zion,  and  in  Jerusalem, 
And  before  His  ancients,  gloriously.^^ 

The  ultimate  triumph  of  the  church  which  Isaiah 
sees  and  her  joy  at  the  complete  deliverance  from 
the  power  of  her  enemies,  is  celebrated  by  him  in 
the  following  glowing  imagery: — 

The  wilderness  and  the  solitary  place  shall  be  glad  for 

them; 
And  the  desert  shall  rejoice  and  blossom  as  the  rose. 
It  shall  blossom  abundantly,  and  rejoice 
Even  with  joy  and  singing. 
The  glory  of  Lebanon  shall  be  given  unto  it, 
The  excellency  of  Carmel  and  Sharon, 
They  shall  see  the  glory  of  the  Lord,  and  the  excellency 

of  our  God.^^ 

•"Is.  XXIV :4.  ''Is.  XXIV :23.  "Is.  XXXV:i-2. 


64  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

A  very  bold  figure  Is  that  in  Chapter  V:i4: — 

Therefore  hell  hath  enlarged  herself, 
And  opened  her  mouth  without  measure. 

ALLEGORY 

There  is  much  similarity  between  allegory  and 
metaphor;  yet  it  is  often  difficult  to  see  the  cor- 
rect meaning  in  allegory,  while  a  correct  metaphor 
seldom  misleads.  Another  kind  of  allegory,  the 
parabolic,  is  frequently  more  obscure  in  meaning 
than  the  extended  metaphor. 

Isaiah  uses  this  figure  but  little.  It  is  a  favorite 
of  Ezekiel's.  We  will  notice  but  two  allegories 
in  the  Prophecies  of  Isaiah.  The  first  is  that  of 
the  vineyard  signifying  the  Jewish  church.  The 
parable  teaches  that  the  church  shall  have  God's 
mercy,  loving-kindness  and  protection  while  pass- 
ing through  tribulation. 

In  that  day  sing  ye  unto  her, 

A  vineyard  of  red  wine. 

I  the  Lord  do  keep  it; 

I  will  water  it  every  moment: 

Lest  any  hurt  it,  I  will  keep  it  night  and  day. 


40 


The    second    is    that    of    dissatisfied    enemies. 
Again  we   have   utterances   to    encourage   God's 
children   by   declaring   the   discomfiture    of   their 
enemies. 
'"Is.  XXVII :2-3. 


Isaiah,  His   Times  and  Style  6$ 

And  the  multitude  of  all  the  nations  that  fight  against 

Ariel, 
Even  all  that  fight  against  her  and  her  munition,  and  that 

distress  her, 
Shall  be  as  a  dream  of  a  night  vision.*^ 

Figures  of  Contiguity 

This  class  of  figures  Is  based  on  the  various 
associations  that  may  arise  in  the  mind.  Many 
figures  of  contiguity  are  found  In  the  Prophecies 
of  Isaiah.  The  parallelism  In  the  Hebrew  Writ- 
ings makes  these  to  be  favorite  figures. 

SYNECDOCHE 

Synecdoche  Is  defined  by  Bain  as  ''putting  the 
species  for  the  genus,  the  Individual  for  the 
species,  the  genus  for  the  species,  and  the  con- 
crete for  the  abstract."^^ 

Figures  of  this  kind  are  not  plentiful.  The 
Prophets,  however,  never  touch  this  string  of  their 
lyre  without  bringing  forth  choice  music. 

Some  select  figures  of  synecdoche  are : — 

"Everlasting  joy  upon  their  heads"  (Ch.  XXXV :io)  ; 
"the  isles  saw  it  and  feared"  (Ch.  XLI:5);  "the  isles 
shall  wait  for  his  law"  (Ch.  XLII:4);  "let  the  wil- 
derness and  the  cities  lift  up  their  voice"  (Ch. 
XLIIiii);  "mine  arms  shall  judge  the  people"  (Ch. 
LI:5). 

"Is.  XXIX 7. 

'"J.   S.  Clark,  "Rhetoric,"  p.  197. 


66  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 


METONYMY 

Metonymy  consists  in  naming  a  thing  by  some 
accompaniment.  It  is  a  figure  which  may  assume 
several  aspects  and  is  used  frequently,  but  not  ex- 
cessively, by  the  writers  of  Isaiah's  Prophecies. 
Metonymies  are  scattered  through  these  prophe- 
cies like  mottled  beads  on  a  necklace,  each  a  little 
different  from  the  others,  but  all  contributing  to 
the  beauty  of  the  whole.  Out  of  the  large  number 
of  these  figures,  we  select  a  few  choice  examples. 

In  the  twenty-fourth  and  twenty-seventh  chap- 
ters Isaiah  thunders  out  the  wrath  of  Jehovah 
upon  the  nations.  The  following  figure  indicates 
its  completeness: — 

And  it  shall  come  to  pass,  that  he  who  fleeth  from  the 
noise  of  the  fear  shall  fall  into  the  pit ; 

And  he  that  cometh  up  out  of  the  midst  of  the  pit  shall 
be  taken  in  the  snare : 

For  the  windows  from  on  high  are  open, 

And  the  foundations  of  the  earth  do  shake.*^ 

A  beautiful  and  discreet  note  of  caution  is 
sounded  in  the  next  figure.  While  God  is  punish- 
ing wicked  peoples  it  is  well  for  His  people  to 
abide  closely  by  His  side. 

Come,  my  people,  enter  thou  into  the  chambers 
And  shut  thy  doors  about  thee; 

*'Is.  XXIV:i8. 


Isaiah,  His   Times  and  Style  67 

Hide  thyself  as  it  were  for  a  little  moment, 
Until  the  indignation  be  overpast.** 

A  beautiful  and  familiar  passage  is  Chapter 
XXVIII:  1 6.  This  figure  alludes  to  the  oriental 
custom  of  placing  massive  cornerstones,  and  a  con- 
nection is  made  (especially  by  the  New  Testa- 
ment writers)  to  Christ.  It  may  be  questioned 
whether  the  passage  was  to  Christ,  Messianic. 
It  may  mean  that  Isaiah  wished  to  teach  that  only 
in  Jerusalem  was  security  or  deliverance  to  be 
found. 

Behold  I  lay  in  Zion  for  a  foundation  a  stone, 

A  tried  stone,  a  precious  corner  stone,  a  sure  foundation.*' 

Additional  examples  of  metonymy  are: — 

"The  bread  of  adversity  and  water  of  affliction"  (Ch. 
XXX :20);  the  Lord's  "lips  full  of  indignation"  (Ch. 
XXX :27);  "Ye  that  sow  beside  all  waters,  that  send 
forth  thither  the  feet  of  the  ox  and  the  ass"  (Ch. 
XXXII :2o)  ;  "Be  thou  their  arm  every  morning"  (Ch. 
XXXIII  :2)  ;  "the  mountains  shall  be  melted  with  their 
blood"  (Ch.  XXXIV:3);  "sword  shall  be  bathed  in 
heaven"  (Ch.  XXXIV :5)  ;  "A  land  of  com  and  wind" 
(Ch.  XXXVI :i 7)  ;  "from  the  rising  of  the  sun"  (Ch. 
XLI:25)  ;  "passing  through  waters"  and  "through  rivers" 
(Ch.  XLIII:2);  "feedeth  of  ashes"  (Ch.  XLIV:2o)  ; 
"the  ends  of  the  earth"  (Ch.  XLV:22)  ;  "I  have  graven 
thee  upon  the  palms  of  my  hands"  (Ch.  XLIX:i6)  ;  "lick 
up  the  dust  of  thy  feet"   (Ch.  XLIX:23). 

**  Is.  XXVI  :2o.        *=  Is.  XXVIII  :i6. 


68  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

Each  of  the  above  figures  has  some  special 
merit,  adding  strength,  beauty  or  vision  to  the  sub- 
ject in  hand. 

Other  metonymies  that  are  so  fitting  as  to  de- 
serve more  attention  than  our  space  allows  are : — 

"Look  unto  the  rock  whence  ye  are  hewn,  and  to  the 
hole  of  the  pit  whence  ye  are  digged"  (Ch.  LI:i)  ;  "I 
have  taken  out  of  thine  hand  the  cup  of  trembling,  even 
the  dregs  of  the  cup  of  my  fury"  (Ch.  LI:22);  "buy 
wine  and  milk  without  money  and  without  price"  (Ch. 
LV:i);  "Cause  to  ride  upon  the  high  places  of  the 
earth"  (Ch.  LVIIIih)  ;  "He  hath  clothed  me  with  the 
garments  of  salvation,  He  hath  covered  me  with  the  robe 
of  righteousness"  (Ch.  LXI:io);  "thy  land  shall  be 
married"  (Ch.  LXn:4)  ;  "the  wolf  and  the  lamb  shall 
feed  together"  (Ch.  LXV:25). 

EXCLAMATION 

Imagery  of  this  character  belongs  only  to  the 
stronger  emotions.  We  expect  to  find  some  in  the 
writings  of  a  man  of  Isaiah's  temperament.  In 
this  we  are  not  disappointed.  He  is  temperate 
in  the  use  of  these  figures  as  their  character  de- 
mands. 

When  Isaiah  calls  attention  to  the  value  of  the 
work  of  God's  messengers  and  to  the  One  who  is 
the  source  of  their  strength,  he  breaks  forth  In 
the  following  eloquent  and  glowing  language : — 

How  beautiful  upon  the  mountains  are  the  feet  of  him 
that  bringeth  good  tidings,  that  publisheth  peace; 


Isaiah,  His   Times  and  Style  69 

That  brlngeth  good  tidings  of  good,  that  publisheth  sal- 
vation ; 
That  saith  unto  Zion,  thy  God  reigneth !  ^® 

The  Prophet  has  had  a  wonderful  vision  of 
what  the  church  may  become.  In  the  following 
figure  he  exhorts  her  to  come  up  to  her  privilege, 
*'rise  from  the  dust,"  break  her  shackles  and  "as- 
sert her  freedom." 

Awake,  awake;  put  on  thy  strength,  O  Zion; 
Put  on  thy  beautiful  garments,  O  Jerusalem.*^ 


HYPERBOLE 

Hyperbole  is  described  by  Haven^^  "as  an  ex- 
pression which  literally  understood  means  more 
than  the  writer  intends  to  utter."  The  exactness 
of  Isaiah  and  the  figures  of  the  Hebrews  being  so 
closely  allied  to  common  things  may  account  for 
the  scarcity  of  hyperbole  in  the  Prophecies.  Any 
writer  with  a  high  sense  of  appropriateness  would 
not  use  the  figure  except  in  connection  with  a  noble 
occasion  or  character. 

To  describe  the  coming  of  Christ's  Kingdom 
and  the  personality  of  the  King,  sufficiently  strong 
language  can  hardly  be  found.  In  the  following 
figure  Isaiah  finds  comprehensive  and  appropriate 
language : — 

*"Is.  LII:/.  *'Is.  LII:i.  ^^  "Rhetoric." 


70  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

And  His  name  shall  be  called  Wonderful,   Counsellor, 

the  Mighty  God, 
The  everlasting  Father,  the  Prince  of  Peace. 
Of  the  increase  of  His  government  and  peace  there  shall 

be  no  end.*^ 


APOSTROPHE 

This  figure  is  closely  allied  to  personification 
and  is  often  associated  with  it.  It  is  defined  by 
Kellogg  as  a  figure  "in  which  the  absent  one  is 
addressed  as  though  present,  and  the  inanimate  as 
though  intelligent  and  present." 

The  sympathy  of  nature  with  Israel  is  assumed 
in  a  striking  apostrophe;  now  that  Israel  is  re- 
deemed nature  is  called  upon  to  express  her  joy : — 

Sing,  O  ye  heavens;  for  the  Lord  hath  done  it: 
Shout,  ye  lower  parts  of  the  earth: 
Break  forth  into  singing,  ye  mountains, 
O  forest,  and  every  tree  therein.^^ 

Figures  of  Contrast 

Isaiah's  style  does  not  abound  in  figures  of  con- 
trast. He  found  those  of  similarity  and  conti- 
guity better  adapted  to  his  purpose.  A  few  well- 
chosen  figures  of  this  character  adorn  his  Prophe- 
cies. 

« Is.  IX :6-7.  "Is.  XLIV:23. 


Isaiah,  His  Times  and  Style  71 


ANTITHESIS 

''Antithesis/'  says  Bain,  "consists  in  the  expli- 
cit statement  of  the  contrast  implied  in  the  mean- 
ing of  any  term  or  description."  It  is  a  figure 
frequently  found  in  Hebrew  poetry,  and  is  espe- 
cially pointed  and  telling  in  the  Prophecies  of 
Isaiah.  The  following  excerpts  illustrate  its  char- 
acteristic strength. 

Though  your  sins  be  as  scarlet,  they  shall  be  as  white 

as  snow; 
Though  they  be  red  like  crimson  they  shall  be  as  wool.^^ 

And  he  looked  for  judgment  but  behold  oppression; 
For  righteousness,  but  behold  a  cry.^^ 

Woe  unto  them  that  call  evil  good,  and  good  evil; 
That  put  darkness  for  light  and  light  for  darkness; 
That  put  bitter  for  sweet  and  sweet  for  bitter !  ^^ 

Behold,  my  servants  shall  eat,  but  ye  shall  be  hungry : 
Behold,  my  servants  shall  drink,  but  ye  shall  be  thirsty : 
Behold,  my  servant  shall  rejoice,  but  ye  shall  be  ashamed: 
Behold,  my  servants  shall  sing  for  joy  of  heart, 
But  ye  shall  cry  for  sorrow  of  heart, 
And  shall  howl  for  vexation  of  spirit.^* 

INTERROGATION 

A  truth  stated  in  the  form  of  a  question  often 
acquires  thereby  an  added  strength.     In  no  other 

"Is.  I:i8.        "Is.  ¥7.        "Is.  V:2o.         "Is.  LXV .13-14. 


72  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

way  could  one's  confidence  In  the  truth  be  ex- 
pressed in  a  more  cogent  manner.  Almost  uncon- 
sciously the  listener  Is  made  a  partner  In  the  dis- 
course, and  before  he  Is  aware  his  assent  Is  gained. 
Clark  thinks  It  Is  a  species  of  anthlthesis,  as  It 
"brings  affirmative  and  negative  answers  Into 
contrast."^^ 

Probably  In  no  other  way  could  the  omnipotence 
of  God  be  better  shown  than  by  the  following  In- 
terrogation : — 

Who  hath  measured  the  waters  in  the  hollow  of  his  hand, 

And  meted  out  heaven  with  the  span, 

And  comprehended  the  dust  of  the  earth  in  a  measure, 

And  weighed  the  mountains  in  scales, 

And  the  hills  in  a  balance? 

Who  hath  directed  the  Spirit  of  the  Lord, 

Or  being  his  counsellor  hath  taught  him  ?  ^® 

Isaiah  Is  constantly  seeking  to  Impress  the 
people  with  the  Idea  of  both  the  ability  and  willing- 
ness of  Jehovah  to  aid  them. 

Wherefore,  when  I  came,  was  there  no  man  ? 
When  I  called,  was  there  none  to  answer? 
Is  my  hand  shortened  at  all,  that  it  cannot  redeem? 
Or  have  I  no  power  to  deliver?  °^ 

The  Prophet,  being  sincere,  cannot  brook  any 
hollow  observance  of  a  religious  custom.    Formal- 

''' Clark's  "Practical  Rhetoric." 

'"Is.  XL:i2-i3.  "Is.  L:2. 


Isaiah,  His   T ivies  and  Style  73 

ism  must  be  rebuked  until  all  worship  is  from  the 
heart. 

Is  it  such  a  fast  that  I  have  chosen  ? 

A  day  for  a  man  to  afflict  his  soul? 

Is  it  to  bow  down  his  head  as  a  bulrush, 

And  to  spread  sack-cloth  and  ashes  under  him? 

Wilt  thou  call  this  a  fast, 

And  an  acceptable  day  to  the  Lord? 

Is  not  this  the  fast  that  I  have  chosen  ?  ^^ 

Zion  will  be  enlarged  notwithstanding  the 
scoffs  of  her  enemies.  The  exiles  will  rejoice  be- 
cause the  offspring  of  Zion  shall  be  "a  nation  born 
at  once."  The  following  interrogation  suggests 
this  in  a  cogent  manner : — 

Who  hath  heard  such  a  thing? 

Who  hath  seen  such  things? 

Shall  the  earth  be  made  to  bring  forth  in  one  day? 

Or  shall  a  nation  be  born  at  once  ?  ^^ 

George  Adam  Smith^*^  has  drawn  a  contrast  be- 
tween the  Prophecies  of  Isaiah  and  those  of  Jere- 
miah. Isaiah  preached  the  inviolableness  of 
Jerusalem.  He  persisted  that  Zion  should  not 
be  taken,  and  that  the  people,  though  cut  down 
to  the  roots,  should  remain  planted  in  the  land. 
Jeremiah  preached  a  message  directly  opposite. 
^'Around  him  the  popular  prophets  babbled  by  rote 

"^Is.  LVIII:5-6.  ''Is.  LXVI:8. 

"  See  Expositors  Bible,  "Isaiah,"  Vol.  II,  p.  27. 


74  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

Isaiah's  ancient  assurances  about  Zion.  Jeremiah 
called  down  the  storm."  He  predicted  the  speedy- 
ruin  of  the  temple  and  city,  and  summoned  Judah's 
enemies  against  her  in  the  name  of  God  on  whose 
former  word  she  had  relied  for  peace. 

Jeremiah  is  the  Prophet  of  pathos  rather  than 
Isaiah.  However,  when  the  later  Isaiah  does 
"mitigate  his  voice,"  as  in  the  fifty-third  chapter, 
the  beautiful,  sublime  and  pathetic  are  blended  in 
exquisite  harmony.  Nothing  can  be  found  in  all 
literature  that  is  more  tender  and  touching  than 
the  following: — 

Can  a  woman  forget  her  sucking  child 

That  she  should  not  have  compassion  on  the  son  of  her 

womb? 
Yea,  these  may  forget,  yet  will  not  I  forget  thee.^^ 

We  agree  heartily  with  Hastings  that  "Isaiah 
is  the  greatest  Hebrew  Prophet  by  strength  of  per- 
sonality, the  wisdom  of  his  statesmanship,  the 
length  and  unbroken  assurance  of  his  ministry,  the 
almost  unaided  service,  the  purity  and  grandeur  of 
style,  and  influence  he  exerted  on  subsequent 
Prophecy."  ^^ 

"^Is.  XLIX:i5. 

""Hastings'  "Bible  Dictionary,"  Vol.  11,  p.  485. 


CHAPTER  V 

JEREMIAH   AND    LAMENTATIONS 

FAITHFUL  people  are  seldom  appreciated  as 
they  should  be  until  after  they  are  dead. 
Having  a  work  to  do  and  performing  it  unswerv- 
ingly, it  becomes  popular  to  blame  them  for  lack 
of  tact  or  unnecessary  harshness.  Jeremiah  be- 
longs to  this  class.  Perhaps  no  time,  in  this  world, 
is  propitious  for  a  faithful  servant  of  God;  cer- 
tainly the  times  in  which  Jeremiah  lived  were  not 
favorable  for  a  man  of  his  temperament. 

Son  of  Hilkiah,  priest  in  Anathoth,  he  was 
called  to  his  work  in  his  youth,  626  B.  C,  "the 
darkest  period  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah."^  Isaiah 
had  the  more  popular  task  of  preaching  the  in- 
violability of  Jerusalem.  When  Jeremiah  arrived 
on  the  scene  he  saw  that  Isaiah's  doctrine  had  be- 
come a  hindrance  to  the  progress  of  the  kingdom. 
Formalism  had  been  bad  enough  in  the  time  of 
Isaiah.  In  Jeremiah's  time,  however,  not  only 
was  formalism  rampant,  but  the  doctrine  of  "in- 
violability" was  leading  to  political  arrogance  and 
sure  national  defeat.^ 

^  Ency.  Americana,  Vol.  IX,  Art.  "Jeremiah." 
^  See  "Bible  as  Literature,"  Kellner,  1896,  p.  163. 

75 


76  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

Assyria  had  been  a  formidable  enemy  to  Judah, 
but  Babylon,  under  Nebuchadnezzar,  was  much 
more  so.  Jeremiah,  feeling  that  discretion  was 
the  better  part  of  valor,  took  the  distasteful  and 
unpopular  course  of  counseling  national  subjec- 
tion. In  addition,  he  demanded  loving  kindness, 
justice  and  purity  in  such  practical,  searching  ex- 
hortations that  he  becomes  hated  of  all  men. 

Naturally  he  was  timid  and  shrinking.  Because 
he  had  a  less  pronounced  personality  than  Isaiah 
he  might  more  easily  hear  the  voice  from  above, 
and  accomplish  a  work  impossible  for  that  great 
Prophet. 

We  may  behold  another  important  side  of  Jere- 
miah's nature  in  his  tender  sympathy  and  true 
brotherliness.  Before  the  time  of  Solomon  the 
wounds  of  a  friend  were  faithful,  and  they  have 
been  so  ever  since.  Only  his  profound  sense  of 
duty  to  God  and  love  for  his  people  were  re- 
sponsible for  the  faithful  deliverance  of  his  mes- 
sage. His  sympathy  and  tenderness  were  always 
commensurate  with  his  severest  denunciations.  If 
he  denounced  the  sins  of  his  people,  he  did  it  in 
tears  and  for  their  good,  and  was  always  extending 
Bis  hands  to  uplift  them.  If  he  felt  that  the  in- 
habitants of  Judah  should  be  punished  for  their 
sins,  he  submits  to  be  smitten,  placed  in  the  stocks 
and  in  the  mire  of  dungeons,  rather  than  fail  to 
deliver  his  message.     He  keeps  nothing  back  that 


Jeremiah  and  Lamentations  77 

will  help  his  people,  but  reveals  for  their  good  the 
inmost  recesses  of  his  sensitive  nature.  He  ever 
watches  his  countrymen  with  a  sympathetic  in- 
terest, born^of  sincere  love  and  keen  penetration 
into  their  life  problems. 

The  splendid  faithfulness  and  courage  of  the 
man  are  seen  in  the  fact  that  though  he  had  a 
very  sensitive  and  delicate  nature  and  stood  alone 
amidst  enemies,  he  delivered,  during  forty  years, 
messages,  warnings  and  rebukes  to  a  corrupt 
people,  denouncing  unfaithful  priests  and  false 
prophets.  Although  the  charge  of  treachery  was 
brought  against  him,  "he  held  fast  to  trust  in 
Jehovah,  and  in  the  stormy  sunset  of  Prophecy  be- 
held the  dawn  of  a  brighter  day."^ 

As  time  passed  and  his  Prophecies  were  ful- 
filled, those  whom  he  had  befriended  against  their 
wills  came  to  have  a  high  regard  for  him.  As 
centuries  elapsed  many  legends  of  romantic  char- 
acter were  associated  with  his  name. 

As  is  always  the  case  with  an  author,  Jere- 
miah's literary  output  is  colored  by  his  life  work 
and  the  prevailing  tendencies  of  his  nature.  The 
sympathy,  tenderness  and  deep  emotion  that  are 
so  frequently  manifested  in  his  dealings  with 
Judah,  are  noticeable  in  his  Prophecy.  The  char- 
acter and  temper  of  no  other  Prophet  is  more  com- 
pletely reflected  in  his  writings  than  is  that  of  Jere- 

^  Lange's  Commentary,  Vol.  XII,  Preface. 


78  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

miah  in  his  strongly  subjective,  affecting,  elegiac 
style  which  combines  the  truth  of  history  with 
the  deepest  pathos  of  poetry.*"^^ 

Critics  do  not  agree  in  their  estimate  of  his 
writings.  Hastings,^  although  paying  him  several 
fine  tributes,  says  boldly,  "We  have  no  literature 
from  him."  This  seems  rather  harsh,  though 
there  are  good  foundations  for  the  statement. 
One  writer^  claims  that  the  book  appears  to  be 
the  product  of  writers  unknown  to  us  by  name; 
that  it  is  the  reports  and  collections  of  oracles, 
prophets,  historians,  poets,  editors  and  annotators. 
It  also  introduces  us  to  a  number  of  original  pro- 
phetic authors  living  in  later  times  while  the 
editors  of  the  book  have  associated  with  it  a  num- 
ber of  poetical  passages,  psalm  fragments,  elegies 
and  gnomic  poems.  Hastings  beautifully  says, 
"The  flowers  of  his  thought  reach  us  after  being 
cut  and  pressed  and  the  fragrance  and  beauty  re- 
maining faintly  suggest  what  they  were  when 
fresh. "^  Peake  describes  the  style  as  "diffuse  and 
pedestrian,"^  abounding  in  stereotyped  formulae 
and  constant  repetition,  while  no  plan  seems  to 
have  determined  its  arrangement. 

Jeremiah  was  a  Prophet  of  God  first  and  a  lit- 
erary personage  second,  else  he  would  not  have 

*  See  Lange's  Commentary,  Vol.  XII,  "Jeremiah." 
**  Hastings'  Bible  Dictionary,   Vol.  II,  p.   575. 
'See  Ency.  Biblica,  Column  2388,  Vol.  II. 
'Bible  Dictionary,  Vol.  II,  p.  576. 
*New  Century  Bible,  Vol.  I,  ''Jeremiah,"  p.  48. 


Jeremiah  and  Lamentations  79 

waited  twenty-three  years  after  the  utterance  of 
certain  Prophecies  before  recording  them.  When 
commanded  to  speak  he  did  not  wait  until  his  lips 
were  touched  by  the  muse  of  poetry.^  The  re- 
ligious content  of  his  oracles  claimed  more  of  his 
attention  than  their  literary  form.  Some  ideas 
which  he  regarded  as  fundamental  are  repeated  to 
monotonousness.  This,  however,  must  be  ex- 
pected as,  true  to  the  Hebrew  tradition,  he  had  but 
one  string  to  play  on,  that  being — sins  must  be 
denounced  and  penalties  foretold.  Conciseness 
and  concentration  are  often  lacking;  his  transitions 
are  frequently  abrupt,  while  his  periods  are  dis- 
couragingly  long  and  his  style  verbose.  Bewilder- 
ment attends  the  continuous  reading  of  many  por- 
tions of  the  book. 

The  Prophecy  of  Jeremiah  will  not  receive  jus- 
tice if  judged  by  its  literary  merit  alone.  In  his 
anxiety  to  do  for  others  which  resulted  in  his 
life  being  a  drawn-out  martyrdom,  we  see  the 
loyalty  and  true  courage  of  the  man.  These  go 
a  long  way  toward  compensating  for  any  literary 
deficiencies.  It  should  be  said  in  justice  to  Jere- 
miah, that  he  lived  at  a  time  when  language  in 
general,  although  more  verbose  and  explicit,  lost 
V^  in  compression. 

Lest  we  should  fail  to  give  him  all  the  credit 
he  deserves,  we  would  say  that  his  Prophecy,  al- 

*  New  Century  Bible,  Vol.  I,  "Jeremiah,"  p.  48. 


8o  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

though  as  a  whole  not  a  literary  masterpiece,  con- 
tains many  isolated  selections  of  true  poetic  beauty. 
While  generally  not  ornamented,  his  Writings 
have  a  richness,  beauty  and  depth  due  to  their 
sadness  and  fervor. 

In  sentences  and  single  expressions  alone  does 
Jeremiah's  claim  to  literary  merit  lie.  He  is  un- 
equaled  in  expressions  of  sorrow  and  tenderness. 
Observe  the  following: — 

For  the  mountains  will  I  take  up  a  weeping  and  wailing, 
And  for  the  habitations  of  the  wilderness  a  lamentation, 
Because  they  are  burnt  up  so  that  none  can  pass  through 

'     them  ; 
Neither  can  men  hear  the  voice  of  the  cattle; 
Both  the  fowl  of  the  heavens  and  the  beast 
Are  fled;  they  are  gone.^° 

It  is  the  custom  in  Syria  even  to-day  to  have  pro- 
fessional mourners.  Realizing  the  severity  of  the 
impending  blow  upon  Judah,  Jeremiah  asks  in  the 
following  passage  that  all  the  mourning  women 
come  to  aid  in  giving  vent  to  feelings  and  provok- 
ing sorrow: — 

Consider  ye,  and  call  for  the  mourning  women  that  they 

may  come; 
And  let  them  make  haste,  and  take  up  a  wailing  for  us, 
That  our  eyes  may  run  down  with  tears, 
And  our  eyelids  gush  out  with  waters. 

•         ■•••• 

"Jer.  IX:io. 


Jeremiah  and  Lamentations  8 1 

And  teach  your  daughters  wailing, 

And  every  one  her  neighbor  lamentation.^^ 

In  the  following  figure  the  use  of  the  term 
^Virgin,"  through  association,  adds  bitterness  to 
Jeremiah's  natural  sorrow  of  heart: — 

Let  mine  eyes  run  down  with  tears  night  and  day,  and 

let  them  not  cease : 
For  the  virgin  daughter  of  my  people  is  broken  with  a 

great  breach,  with  a  very  grievous  blow. 
If  I  go  forth  into  the  field,  then  behold  the  slain  with 

the  sword! 
And  if  I  enter  into  the  city,  then  behold  them  that  are 

sick  with  famine !  ^^ 

In  all  literature  there  is  perhaps  nothing  equal 
in  pathetic  tenderness  to  the  passage  closing  with 
the  words : — 

G  that  my  head  were  waters,  and  mine  eyes  a  fountain 

of  tears, 
That  I  might  weep  day  and  night  for  the  slain  of  the 

daughter  of  my  people !  ^^ 

In  sadness,  simplicity  and  conciseness,  nothing 
is  finer  than: — 

The  harvest  is  past,  the  summer  is  ended,  and  we  are 
not  saved. ^* 

"Jer.  IX:i7-2i.  "Jer.  XIV:i7-i8. 

"Jer.  IX  :i.  "Jer.  VIII  :20. 


82  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 


Figures  of  Resemblance 

SIMILE 

Jeremiah  is  not  so  profuse  with  figures  as  is 
Isaiah;  like  him,  however,  figures  of  resemblance 
take  precedence.  He  is  strong  in  the  use  of  simile 
as  the  excerpts  will  indicate.  The  following  figure 
of  resemblance  is  tinged  with  irony: — 

And  they  bend  their  tongues  like  their  bow  for  lies.^^ 

The  lack  of  suspicion  in  his  character  is  shown 
by  what  Jeremiah  says  concerning  the  plot  formed 
against  him: — 

But  I  was  like  a  lamb  or  an  ox  that  is  brought  to  the 
slaughter.^^ 

A  well-balanced  simile  reminding  one  of  the 
first  Psalm  is : — 


For  he  shall  be  as  a  tree  planted  by  the  waters.^^ 

The  following  simple  and  familiar  figure 
teaches  the  patience  of  God.  He  will  use  every 
means  to  transform  the  characters  of  individuals 
into  the  condition  that  He  desires. 

»Jer.  IX:3.  "Jer.  XI:i9.  "Jer.  XVII:8. 


Jeremiah  and  Lamentations  83 

Behold,  as  the  clay  is  in  the  potter's  hand, 
So  are  ye  in  mine  hand,  O  house  of  Israel.^® 

The  next  comparison  reveals  something  of  the 
conscientiousness  of  Jeremiah.  He  was  human 
and  his  work  of  faithfulness  was  distasteful  to 
him,  yet  In  the  conflict  between  his  higher  and 
lower  self  the  higher  rules. 

But  his  word  was  in  mine  heart  as  a  burning  fire  shut 
up  in  my  bones.^®  ^ 

A  man  of  Jeremiah's  temperament  and  char- 
acter could  not  fall  to  denounce  false  Prophets. 
They,  by  their  flattering  promises  of  peace,  hinder 
him  In  the  work  for  which  he  Is  giving  his  life.  His 
words,  though  harsh,  are  potent  In  accomplishing 
a  necessary  work.  Fire  both  protects  and  pun- 
ishes : — 

Is  not  my  word  like  as  a  fire  ?  saith  the  Lord ;  and  like  a 
hammer  that  breaketh  the  rock  in  pieces  ?  ^® 

Away  from  home  the  exiles  are  helpless  and 
homesick,  but  when  the  restoration  takes  place  they 
will  have  the  potency  of  a  well-watered  garden. 

And  their  soul  shall  be  as  a  watered  garden.^^ 

"Jer.  XVIII  :6.  "Jer.  XX  :9. 

'•'Jer.  XXIII  :29  ''Jer.  XXXI  :i2. 


84  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

To  characterize  Nebuchadnezzar  and  his  work, 
Jeremiah  uses  the  following  significant  figure: — 


22 


Behold,  he  shall  fly  as  an  eagle. 


METAPHOR 

His  metaphors  are  rich  and  appropriate.  True 
to  the  tendency  manifested  by  the  earlier  Prophets, 
they  are  mostly  drawn  from  things  connected  with 
the  common  life.  Jeremiah  was  frequently  pro- 
voked by  the  proneness  of  Judah  to  go  into  idol- 
atry. In  the  following  figure  he  likens  her  to  a 
dromedary  and  an  ass : — 

Thou  art  a  swift  dromedary  traversing  her  ways;  a  wild 
ass  used  to  the  wilderness.^^ 

To  show  the  base  character  of  his  enemies, 
Jeremiah  uses  the  brief  but  expressive  figure : — 

They  are  brass  and  iron.-* 

The  relentlessness  and  courage  of  Jeremiah  are 
constantly  before  us.  Although  he  knew  his  faith- 
ful denunciations  meant  hatred,  if  not  death,  for 
him,  his  sense  of  duty  constantly  impelled  him  for- 
ward. To  teach  the  terrible  effects  of  sin,  he 
represents  the  Lord  as  saying: — 

And  I  will  make  this  city  desolate,  and  an  hissing.^^ 

^^'Jer.  XLVIII:40.  ''Jer.  11:23-24. 

"Jer.  VI:28.  ''Jer.  XIX  :8. 


Jeremiah  and  Lamentations  85 

As  if  this  were  not  enough,  he  continues : — 

And  they  shall  be  an  execration,  and  an  astonishment,  and 
a  curse,  and  a  reproach.-*^ 

The  following  figure  is  more  important  than  its 
length  suggests.  The  enemies  of  Israel  had  nearly- 
destroyed  her: — 

Israel  is  a  scattered  sheep.^^ 

To  exhibit  the  splendor  and  judicial  purpose  of 
Babylon  the  following  peculiar  figure  is  used. 
Neither  splendor  nor  honor  can  save  her  from  the 
results  of  her  wrong-doing,  as  this  verse  shows : — 


28 


Babylon  hath  been  a  golden  cup  in  the  Lord's  hand. 


PERSONIFICATION 

We  will  show  by  the  employment  of  four  ex- 
amples Jeremiah's  use  of  personification.  The 
beauty  of  the  first  is  alone  sufficient  to  rank  him 
as  a  true  poet: — 

For  death  is  come  up  into  our  windows,  and  is  entered 

into  our  palaces, 
To  cut  ofE  the  children  from  without,  and  the  young  men 

from  the  streets.^^ 

=«Jer.  XLIV:i2.       ^^Jer.  Liiy.       =«Jer.  Ll.y.       =^Jer.  IX:2i. 


86  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

To  teach  the  seriousness  of  an  Impending  judg- 
ment the  writer  says : — 

For  this  shall  the  earth  mourn,  and  the  heavens  above 
be  black."^ 

Warning  of  the  impending  calamity  is  given  by 
the  figurative  use  of  the  "wind"  ; — 

The  wind  shall  eat  up  all  thy  pastors.^^ 

The  characteristic  tenderness  and  sympathy  of 
the  Prophet,  as  well  as  his  conciseness  and  mas- 
siveness  of  thought  is  revealed  in  the  following 
expression : — 

And  the  land  shall  tremble  and  sorrow.^^ 


ALLEGORY 

Jeremiah  does  not  use  allegory  as  much  as  some 
of  the  other  Prophets;  his  parable  of  the  good  and 
bad  figs  takes  rank  with  the  best: — 

The  Lord  shewed  me  and  behold,  two  baskets  of  figs 
were  set  before  the  temple  of  the  Lord,  after  that  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, King  of  Babylon,  had  carried  away  captive 
Jeconiah,  the  son  of  Jehoiakim,  King  of  Judah,  and  the 
princes  of  Judah,  with  the  carpenters  and  smiths  from 
Jerusalem,  and  had  brought  them  to  Babylon.  One  bas- 
ket had  very  good  figs,  even  like  the  figs  that  are  first 

'"Jer.   IV:28.  ''Jer.   XXII  :22.  ''Jer.   LI:29. 


Jeremiah  and  Lamentations  87 

ripe:  and  the  other  basket  had  very  naughty  figs,  which 
could  not  be  eaten,  they  were  so  bad.  Then  saith  the 
Lord  unto  me,  What  seest  thou,  Jeremiah?  And  I  said. 
Figs;  the  good  figs,  very  good;  and  the  evil,  very  evil 
that  cannot  be  eaten,  they  are  so  evil. 

Like  these  good  figs,  so  will  I  acknowledge  them  that 
are  carried  away  captive  of  Judah.  .  .  .  And  as  the  evil 
figs,  which  cannot  be  eaten,  they  are  so  evil;  surely  thus 
saith  the  Lord,  so  will  I  give  Zedekiah  King  of  Ju- 
dah. .  .  .2^ 

Figures  of  Contiguity 


METONYMY 

In  some  figures  of  contiguity  Jeremiah  Is  espe- 
cially pleasing.  His  metonymies  are  fitting  and 
plentiful. 

A  fair  list  of  them  Is  as  follows : — 

"I  have  this  day  set  thee  over  the  nations  and  over  the 
kingdoms"  (Ch.  I:io) ;  "the  young  lions  roared  upon  him, 
and  yelled,  and  they  made  his  land  waste:  his  cities  are 
burnt  without  inhabitant"  (Ch.  II:i5);  ''have  broken 
the  crown  of  thy  head"  (Ch.  II:i6)  ;  "the  lion  is  come 
up  from  his  thicket"  (Ch.  IV ry)  ;  "the  portion  of  Ja- 
cob" (Ch.  X:i6);  "I  will  feed  them  with  wormwood, 
and  make  them  drink  the  water  of  gall"  ( Ch.  XXIII : 1 5 )  ; 
"the  fathers  have  eaten  a  sour  grape,  and  the  children's 
teeth  are  set  on  edge"  (Ch.  XXXI 129). 

The  various  Invaders  of  Judah  are  character- 
ized In  an  effective  figure: — 

^'Jer.  Ch.  XXIV :i-8. 


88  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

Wherefore  a  Hon  out  of  the  forest  shall  slay  them,  and 
a  wolf  of  the  evenings  shall  spoil  them,  a  leopard  shall 
watch  over  their  cities.^* 

The  following  figure  contains  a  characteristic 
phrase  of  Jeremiah's.  It  suggests  the  bitterness  re- 
sulting on  account  of  sin. 

For  the  Lord  our  God  hath  put  us  to  silence  and  given 
us  waters  of  gall  to  drink.^^ 

The  gracious  benefits  coming  to  those  who  ful- 
fill the  conditions  God  imposes  are  stated  in  a 
charming  metonymy: — 

A  land  flowing  with  milk  and  honey.^® 

The  figure  in  Chapter  XV 19  is  another  upon 
which  the  claim  of  Jeremiah's  being  a  poet  may  be 
safely  based. 

Her  sun  is  gone  down  while  it  was  yet  day. 

One  acquainted  with  conditions  will  not  be  sur- 
prised if  at  times  Jeremiah  is  almost  discouraged 
while  dealing  with  Judah's  sins.  Such  feeling  is 
suggested  by  the  following  strong  figure: — 

The  sin  of  Judah  is  written  with  a  pen  of  iron,  and 
with  the  point  of  a  diamond.^" 

'*Jer.  V:6.       ^'Jer.  VIII:i4.        '"Jer.  XI:5.        ^^ Jer.  XVII:i. 


Jeremiah  and  Lamentations  89 

A  reassuring  message  for  Christians  is  found  in 
Chapter  XXXIII 115.  Many  have  claimed  to  see 
in  this  a  Prophecy  of  the  Christ. 

At  that  time,  will  I  cause  the  branch  of  righteousness 
to  grow  up  unto  David. 

Jeremiah's  ability  to  conceive  of  great  ideas  and 
clothe  them  in  simple  language  is  manifest  in  this 
striking  metonymy : — 


And  he  shall  array  himself  with  the  land  of  Egypt, 


38 


The  hammer  has  frequently  been  associated 
with  vigorous  and  continuously  exerted  energy  (cf. 
Chas.  Martel  at  battle  of  Tours). 

How  is  the  hammer  of  the  whole  earth  cut  asunder 
and  broken !  ^^ 

Here  we  have  exclamation  and  metonymy 
mixed. 

APOSTROPHE 

One  excerpt  will  illustrate  Jeremiah's  use  of 
apostrophe. 

O  thou  sword  of  the  Lord,  how  long  will  it  be  ere  thou 
be  quiet  ?  *° 

^Jer.  XLIII:i2.  ''Jer.  L:23.  ""Jer.  XLVII:6. 


90  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 


Figures  of  Contrast 

But  few  figures  of  contrast  are  found  in  the 
Prophecy;  these,  however,  are  choice. 

EPIGRAM 

In  the  following  pungent  epigram  we  see  the 
tendency  to  point  and  conciseness  in  Jeremiah's 
style : — 

The  harvest  is  past,  the  summer  is  ended,  and  we  are 
not  saved.*^ 

INTERROGATION 

The  following  interrogation  strongly  suggests 
the  great  privilege  and  exalted  position  of  an 
Israelite : — 

Is  Israel  a  sen^ant?  is  he  a  house-born  slave?  why  is  he 
spoiled?*^ 

If  Jeremiah  had  ever  been  regarded  as  insin- 
cere and  artificial,  the  reading  of  the  following 
would  remove  that  estimation : — 

Can  the  Ethiopian  change  his  skin,  or  the  leopard  his 
spots  ?  *^ 

*"  Jer.  VIII  :20.  "  Jer.  II  :i4.  "  Jer.  XIII  :23. 


Jeremiah  and  Lamentations  91 


IRONY 


Sharp  and  stinging  irony  is  noticeable  in  the 
figure  which  follows : — 


I  proclaim  a  liberty  for  you,  saith  the  Lord,  to  the 
sword,  to  the  pestilence,  and  to  the  famine;  and  I  will 
make  you  to  be  removed  into  all  the  kingdoms  of  the 
earth.** 


The  simplicity  of  the  man  deserves  our  atten- 
tion. It  was  the  simplicity  of  sincerity  and  lack 
of  artificiality.  He  was  so  genuine  that  he  would 
do  nothing  for  effect.  His  imagination  might 
have  soared  to  flights  of  imagery,  however,  if  he 
had  not  so  keenly  realized  the  presence  of  and 
certain  consequences  of  the  sins  of  his  people.  As 
it  was,  "His  poetic  flights  were  restrained  by  his 
presentiments;  his  utterance  was  choked  by  tears." 
Hastings  pays  a  glowing  tribute  to  his  sombre 
realism  and  splendid  dramatic  power.  Had  he 
lived  in  a  less  tumultuous  time  and  not  been  quite 
so  conscientious,  he  would  have  been  a  poet  of  the 
first  rank.  As  it  is  we  have  a  poet  with  many  of 
the  finest  Old  Testament  passages  to  his  credit, 
while  in  majesty  and  sublimity  of  character  he  has 
but  few  peers  in  the  annals  of  men. 

"Jer.  XXXIV  :i7. 


92  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

Lamentations 

The  book  of  Lamentations,  probably  written  in 
Judah  and  Babylon,  consists  of  five  separate 
poems  dealing  with  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  and  the 
sufferings  of  the  Israelites  in  connection  therewith. 
A  century  ago  a  majority  of  the  commentators 
considered  the  book  as  the  work  of  Jeremiah,  al- 
though but  slight  evidence  can  be  found  to  estab- 
lish this  belief.  It  is  seriously  questioned  to-day 
whether  the  poems  were  all  by  the  same  author. 
It  is  difficult  to  imagine  Jeremiah,  disturbed  as  he 
was  by  the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  sitting  down  and 
writing  five  poems  of  this  character. 

The  most  interesting  thing  about  the  book  is 
the  way  it  is  written.  In  connection  with  the  prac- 
tice of  professional  mourning  there  sprang  up  the 
elegiac  rhythm.  This  suggests  a  union  of  two 
members  in  a  kind  of  imperfect  parallelism.  The 
poems  are  written  in  either  couplets  or  triplets  in 
the  acrostic  form;  each  of  the  first,  second,  fourth 
and  fifth  poems  having  twenty-two  verses,  the 
third  consisting  of  sixty-six  verses.  The  fifth  poem 
drops  the  acrostic  structure  and  dirge  rhythm. 
The  third  poem  is  the  climax. 

The  style  of  this  book  is  remarkable.  It  is 
vigorous  and  lively.  Ewald  holds  that  we  owe 
a  vast  debt  to  the  Captivity  for  some  of  the  finest 


Jeremiah  and  Lamentations  93 

poetry,  while  Lange  thinks  nothing  quite  as  artis- 
tic can  be  found  in  the  Bible. 


Figures 

The  writer  of  Lamentations  is  profuse  in  his  use 
of  imagery.  In  proportion  to  its  size,  the  book 
contains  as  many  figures  as  any  of  the  Prophecies. 
A  few  illustrations  will  indicate  the  strength  of  the 
similes. 

Figures  of  Resemblance 

SIMILE 

The  author  feels  keenly  that  the  judgments  on 
Zion  came  from  Jehovah.  He  expresses  this  truth 
in  a  forceful  figure : — 

And  he  burned  against  Jacob  like  a  flaming  fire,  which 

devoureth  round  about. 
He  hath  bent  his  bow  like  an  enemy: 
He  stood  with  his  right  hand  as  an  adversary, 
And  slew  all  that  were  pleasant  to  the  eye 
In  the  tabernacle  of  the  daughter  of  Zion:  he  poured 

out  his  fury  like  fire.^^ 

The  same  thought  is  continued  as  a  simile  in 
the  next  verse: — 

The  Lord  was  as  an  enemy:  he  hath  swallowed  up 
Israel.*^ 

''Lam.  11:3-4.  *'Lam.  11:5. 


94  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

The  simile  in  Chapter  IIIiio  shows  the  writ- 
er's familiarity  with  the  earlier  parts  of  the  Old 
Testament.  The  enemy  is  frequently  compared 
to  a  lion : — 

He  was  unto  me  as  a  bear  lying  in  wait  and  as  a  lion 
in  secret  places. 

The  appropriate  figure  of  an  ostrich  that  for- 
gets her  eggs  buried  in  the  sand  characterizes 
Judah : — 

The  daughter  of  my  people  is  become  cruel,  like  the 
ostriches  in  the  wilderness.*" 

The  following  is  a  reflection  on  the  leaders  of 
Israel.  The  eyes  of  their  souls  have  been  blinded 
by  ignorance  and  sin: — 

They  have  wandered  as  blind  men  in  the  streets,  they 
have  polluted  themselves  with  blood. *^ 


METAPHOR 

Speaking  in  behalf  of  the  nation  and  deploring 
its  sins,  the  writer  exclaims  in  the  expressive  meta- 
phor:— 

I  was  a  derision  to  all  my  people,  and  their  song  all  the 
day.*9 

"Lam.  IV 13.  *Lara.  IV:i4.  *»Lam.  111:14. 


Jeremiah  and  Lamentations  95 

The  same  idea  of  being  the  subject  of  the  taunts 
of  the  enemy  is  found  in  the  metaphor : — 

I  am  their  music.^*' 

PERSONIFICATION 

A    touching   illustration   of   personification    is 
found  in  Chapter  1 :2  : — 

She  weepeth  sore  in  the  night,  and  her  tears  are  on  her 
cheeks.^^ 

The  grievous  condition  of  Jerusalem  is  brought 
before  us  in  a  suggestive  figure : — 

Jerusalem  hath  grievously  sinned;  therefore  she  is  re- 
moved : 

All  that  honoured  her  despise  her,  because  they  have  seen 
her  nakedness.  .  .  . 

Her  filthiness  is  in  her  skirts;  she  remembereth  not  her 
last  end.^^ 

Figures  of  Contiguity 
metonymy 

The  author  of  Lamentations  is  especially  fer- 
tile in  metonymies : — 

"The  daughter  of  Zion"    (Ch.   1:6);   "Yoke  of  my 
transgressions"    (Ch.  1 114);  "Covered  the  daughter  of 

'"Lam.  111:63.  "Lam.  1:2.  "Lam.  1:8-9. 


g6  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

Zion  with  a  cloud"  (Ch.  II :i);  "Lord  hath  swallowed 
up  all  the  habitations  of  Jacob"  (Ch.  11:2)  ;  "He  hath 
cut  off  in  his  fierce  anger  all  the  horn  of  Israel"  (Ch. 
11:3)  ;  "Stretched  out  a  line"  (Ch.  11:8)  ;  "the  horn  of 
thine  adversaries"  (Ch.  II:i7);  "filled  me  with  bitter- 
ness, .  .  .  drunken  with  wormwood"   (Ch.  III:i5). 

We  will  notice  some  of  the  metonymies  in  de- 
tail. An  oft-quoted  figure  is  that  in  Chapter  III : 
27.  Although  submission  and  adaptation  are  dif- 
ficult to  learn  in  old  age,  they  may  be  learned 
while  young  under  proper  conditions : — 

It  is  good  for  a  man  that  he  bear  the  yoke  in  his 
youth.^^ 

The  undone  condition  of  the  rich  and  privileged 
classes  is  forcibly  expressed  as  follows: — 

They  that  were  brought  up  in  scarlet  embrace  dung- 
hills.s* 

EXCLAMATION 

The  book  of  Lamentations  opens  with  a  wail 
of  distress  stated  in  the  form  of  an  exclamation 
combined  with  personification.  The  word  "widow" 
suggests  desolation  and  misery,  while  the  word 
"provinces"  suggests  subjection: — 

How  doth  the  city  sit  solitary,  that  was  full  of  people! 
How  is  she  become  as  a  widow !  she  that  was  great  among 
the  nations, 

"Lam.  111:27.  "Lara.  IV 15. 


Jeremiah  and  Lamentations  97 

And  princess  among  the  provinces,  how  is  she  become 
tributary !  ^^ 


HYPERBOLE 

An  excellent  example  of  hyperbole  is  found  in 
Chapter  III  .'48-49  : — 

Mine  eye  runneth  down  with  rivers  of  water  for  the  de- 
struction of  the  daughter  of  my  people. 

Mine  eye  trickleth  down  and  ceaseth  not,  without  any  in- 
termission. 

Figures  of  Contrast 
interrogation 

The  interrogations  in  Lamentations  are  very 
expressive.  If  Zion  could  only  know  that  others 
had  been  as  unfortunate,  she  would  be  comforted. 
The  figure  suggests  that  her  circumstance  is  un- 
paralleled and  hopeless : — 

What  thing  shall  I  take  to  witness  for  thee? 

What  thing  shall  I  liken  to  thee,  O  daughter  of  Jeru- 
salem ? 

What  shall  I  equal  to  thee,  that  I  may  comfort  thee,  O 
virgin  daughter  of  Zion  ? 

For  thy  breach  is  great  like  the  sea:  who  can  heal  thee?  ^^ 

The  next  is  one  of  the  most  cutting  and  humil- 
iating interrogations  in  the  Bible: — 

"Lam.  I:i.  "Lam.  IIiij. 


98  Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

All  that  pass  by  clap  their  hands  at  thee ; 

They  hiss  and  wag  their  head  at  the  daughter  of  Jeru- 
salem, saying, 

Is  this  the  city  that  men  call  the  perfection  of  beauty,  the 
joy  of  the  whole  earth?  ^^ 

These  poems  contain  the  very  essence  of  the 
poetry  of  pathos  in  a  profusion  of  imagery,  while 
their  technique  is  almost  perfect.  Whoever  wrote 
them  has  an  enduring  monument  to  his  poetical 
genius. 
"Lam.  11:15. 


CHAPTER  VI 

EZEKIEL  AND  DANIEL 
EZEKIEL 

EZEKIEL  was  born  In  Judah  in  the  reign  of 
Joslah  and  was  carried  into  captivity  with 
the  first  band  of  exiles,  when  thirty  years  of  age.^ 
He  entered  on  his  Prophetical  career  at  Chebar  in 
593  B.  C,  after  Jeremiah  had  prophesied  thirty 
years. 

Both  his  labors  and  personality  were  unique 
because  he  did  a  successful  work  in  the  transition 
period  between  the  earlier  and  later  Prophetic 
conceptions.  His  predecessors  had  been  either 
Seers  or  Prophets ;  he  was  both  Prophet  and  priest. 
Says  Prof.  H.  P.  Smith,  ^'Ezeklel  is  the  most  in- 
fluential man  that  we  find  in  the  whole  course  of 
Hebrew  history" ;  he  emphasizes  while  he  bridges 
the  break  between  the  older  Israelitism  of  the 
past  and  the  Judaism  of  the  future.  All  that 
was  noble  among  the  later  Jews  was  the  gift  of 
Ezekiel,^  handed  down  by  him  as  a  legacy  from 

^  See  Lange's  Commentary,  Vol.  XIII,  p.  4. 
'W.  F.  Lofthouse  in  "New  Century  Bible,"  p.  4. 

99 


lOO        Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

the  earlier  ages,  and  transformed  by  him  so  as 
to  persist  under  the  changed  conditions.  He  was 
the  last  of  the  Prophets  and  perhaps  did  not  real- 
ize the  full  significance  of  his  work  and  message.^ 
We  have  seen  that  when  Israel  as  a  nation  de- 
clined the  larger  and  decidedly  spiritual  Israel 
developed.  Ezekiel  was  a  potent  factor  in  this 
development,  placing  great  emphasis  on  individ- 
ual responsibility.  The  thought  of  personal  re- 
ligion, which  was  budding  in  the  time  of  Isaiah, 
grew  toward  maturity  in  the  time  of  Jeremiah  and 
received  an  added  impetus  through  Ezekiel. 

Curtiss  ^  holds  that  his  claim  to  be  called  a 
great  Prophet  rests  largely  on  ''his  adaptation 
both  to  express  and  to  form  the  thinking  of  his 
time." 

Ezekiel  excelled  perhaps  every  other  Prophet 
in  striking  traits  of  personality  and  literary  style. 
If  Isaiah  was  a  religious  statesman  and  Jeremiah 
a  religious  exhorter,  Ezekiel  was  a  student.  His 
predecessors  had  been  speakers,  he  was  more 
nearly  an  elaborate  and  polished  writer. 

We  proceed  in  our  study  of  Ezekiel  with  con- 
fidence because  we  are  so  well  acquainted  with 
him.  He  has  left  ample  data  by  which  to  judge 
his  personality  and  writings.  There  is  a  refresh- 
ing unity  and  orderliness   about  them.     At  the 

'  See  Ency.  Biblica,  Vol.  II,  Art.  "Ezekiel." 
*  Bible  as  Literature,  p.  202. 


Ezekiel  and  Daniel  loi 

same  time  they  reveal  a  striking  personality.  He 
is  at  once  passionate,  determined  and  unflinching, 
while  being  tender  and  sympathetic. 

There  have  been  many  varied  estimates  of 
Ezekiel's  style.  It  is  so  figurative  that  most  read- 
ers do  not  put  forth  the  necessary  mental  energy 
to  understand  him,  while  others  are  rapturous  In 
his  praise.  He  has  been  likened  to  a  comet  and 
meteor.  The  intensity  and  strangeness  of  his 
writings  remind  one  of  Dante  and  E.  A.  Poe.^ 
He  is  as  much  at  home  in  the  use  of  visions  a;id 
allegories  as  Bunyan  to  whom  he  has  been  com- 
pared. 

In  the  character  of  Ezekiel  are  blended  the 
Prophet,  priest  and  literary  artist  In  beautiful 
proportion.  Each  phase  of  his  character  stands 
out  distinctly  without  obscuring  the  others.  The 
brevity  and  conciseness  of  Isaiah  appear  but  sel- 
dom in  Ezekiel's  Writings.  In  striving  to  make 
his  periods  and  paragraphs  correct  and  his  thought 
perfectly  clear,  he  has  at  times  excessively  elab- 
orated. 

He  probably  borrowed  from  the  earlier  Proph- 
ets, but  left  the  Indelible  stamp  of  his  personality 
on  what  he  borrowed.  If  Ezekiel  had  not  pos- 
sessed true  literary  merit,  Schiller  would  not  have 
been  so  ecstatic  In  his  praise,  nor  would  Victor 
Hugo  have  classed  him  with  Homer,  i^schylus 

"See  G.  Gilfillan,  "Bards  of  the  Bible,"  p.  136  ff. 


102        Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

and  Juvenal  in  "the  avenue  of  the  Immovable 
giants  of  the  human  mind,"  ^  nor  would  Herder 
have  called  him  the  iEschylus  and  Shakespeare  of 
the  Hebrews. 

Like  the  other  Prophets,  the  duty  laid  on  him 
was  disagreeable.  Being  extremely  sensitive,  "he 
had  to  struggle  against  the  moral  and  religious 
levity  of  the  mass  of  the  people;  the  torpor  and 
Idolatry  of  the  principal  men  and  the  evil  Influ- 
ences of  the  false  Prophets  and  Prophetesses."  "^ 
Not  only  was  his  work  distasteful,  but  like  that 
of  every  true  Prophet,  It  was  not  comprehended 
and  understood,  even  though  he  sought  to  sup- 
press his  Inmost  feelings  and  do  his  work  calmly. 
When  Jerusalem  fell,  confirming  his  predictions, 
the  people  had  a  greater  respect  for  the  man  and 
his  message. 

In  the  second  chapter  of  this  Dissertation  we 
discussed  the  abnormal  and  ecstatic  element  In  the 
Prophets.  Ezeklel  seems  to  have  more  of  this 
than  any  other.  Klosterman  ^  goes  so  far  as  to 
say  that  he  had  a  form  of  catalepsy.  This  prob- 
ably was  not  the  case.  The  science  of  mind  and 
the  psychical  lITe  was  not  developed  In  Ezeklel's 
time,  and,  although  he  was  probably  abnormal 
at  times,  as  most  of  us  are,  he  was  not  conversant 
with  nomenclature  adequate  to  describe  his  con- 

"New  Century  Bible,  "Ezekiel,"  p.   ii    (note). 
'Ency.  Biblica,  Vol.  II,  Column  1458. 
'New  Century  Bible,  "Ezekiel,"  p.  7. 


Ezekiel  and  Daniel  103 

dition.  This  element  of  abnormality  coupled 
with  the  fact  of  his  not  having  been  present  at 
the  actual  scene  of  history  may  account  for  the 
great  sweeps  of  his  imagination  and  the  theoretical 
flavor  of  his  Writings. 

Ezekiel  was  a  man  of  great  energy  of  char- 
acter. Having  pronounced  intellectual  ability  and 
being  well-read,  we  are  not  surprised  to  find  in 
his  Prophecy  a  rich  and  varied  vocabulary.  If 
conditions  call  for  measured  methodical  expres- 
sion, as  when  dealing  with  the  sanctuary,  or  rare 
and  charming  comparison,  he  is  equal  to  the  oc- 
casion. His  being  associated  with  scribes  at  the 
time  of  the  exile  would  only  strengthen  his  literary 
ability  and  develop  peculiarities  of  style.  His 
gamut  of  feelings  and  interests  was  extensive  but 
not  more  so  than  his  command  of  language.  The 
following  promiscuous  list  of  words  and  phrases 
will  show  the  richness  of  his  style  in  these  particu- 
lars: 

"Calve's  foot,"  "briers  and  thorns,"  "color  of  amber," 
"impudent  children,"  "adamant,  harder  than  flint,"  "went 
in  bitterness,"  "spirit  entered  into  me,"  "abominable 
flesh,"  "a  lament,  an  instruction,  and  an  astonishment," 
"scatter  your  bones,"  "the  rod  hath  blossomed,  pride  hath 
budded,"  "the  image  of  jealousy,"  "deal  in  fury,"  "city 
full  of  perverseness,"  "holy  oblation,"  "make  reconcilia- 
tion," "just  balances,"  "sprinkle  blood,"  "cherubims  and 
palm  trees,"  "polluted  my  Sabbaths,"  "breaking  of  the 
loins,"  "a  sword  is  sharpened  and  also  furbished,"  "I  will 
overturn,  overturn,  overturn  it,"  "profane  wicked  prince 


104        Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

of  Israel,"  ''infamous  and  much  vexed,"  "untempered 
mortars,"  ''a  parable  unto  a  rebellious  house,"  "a  couch- 
ing place  for  flocks." 


Figures 
Figures  of  Resemblance 

SIMILE 

We  may  see  in  this  first  simile  how  Ezekiel 
borrowed  from,  and  was  inspired  by,  the  writings 
in  the  Pentateuch :  The  burning  bush  (Ex.  Ill  :2) , 
the  pillar  of  fire  by  night  (Ex.  XIII 122),  the  fire 
on  Sinai  (Ex.  XIX :8),  the  fire  of  the  Lord  (Num. 
XI:  1.30). 

As  for  the  likeness  of  the  living  creatures,  their  appear- 
ance was  like  burning  coals  of  fire,  and  like  the 
appearance  of  lamps.® 

The  following  figure  is  a  cause  for  believing 
that  Ezekiel  and  Jeremiah  drew  material  from  the 
same  source  (see  Jer.  XV:  16).  The  work  of 
the  Lord  may  be  distasteful  at  first  but  this  is  fol- 
lowed by  infinite  sweetness: — 

Then  did  I  eat  it;  and  it  was  in  my  mouth  as  honey  for 
sweetness.^^ 

'Ezek.  1:13.  "Ezek.  111:3. 


Ezekiel  and  Daniel  105 

The  following  strong  figure  was  a  favorite  with 
Ezekiel.  It  suggests  the  effect  of  wickedness  on 
the  life : — 

All  knees  shall  be  weak  as  water.^^ 

The  figure  in  Chapter  XXXII  :2  shows  the  inde- 
pendence of  Ezekiel.  Instead  of  obtaining  his 
symbols,  as  was  usual,  from  land  animals,  he 
chooses  one  from  the  water: — 

Thou  art  as  a  whale  in  the  seas. 

The  next  suggestive  figure  shows  us  conditions 
that  will  obtain  when  Israel  is  renewed: — 

As  the  holy  flock,  as  the  flock  of  Jerusalem  in  her  sol- 
emn feasts;  so  shall  the  waste  cities  be  filled  with  flocks 
of  men.^^ 

METAPHOR 

Two  choice  excerpts  will  illustrate  the  author's 
use  of  this  figure.  An  apt  metaphor  is  used  to 
suggest  the  contaminating  influences  to  which 
Israel  had  succumbed.  If  she  submits  to  the  ''fiery 
trial"  in  the  right  spirit,  all  her  dross  will  be  con- 
sumed:— 

The  house  of  Israel  is  to  me  become  dross:  all  they  are 
brass,  and  tin,  and  iron,  and  lead,  in  the  midst  of  the 
furnace ;  they  are  even  the  dross  of  silver.^^ 

"Ezek.  VII  :i7.  "  Ezek.  XXXVI  :38.        "Ezek.  XXII  :i8. 


io6        Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

Warning  Is  given  to  Egypt  and  Pharaoh  by 
the  parable  concerning  Assyria.  The  fact  of  As- 
syria's reaching  a  glorious  and  commanding  stage 
in  her  history  did  not  deter  her  from  falling: — 

Behold,  the  Assyrian  was  a  cedar  in  Lebanon  ^* 
PERSONIFICATION 

Two  of  Ezekiel's  choice  personifications  are : — 

The  rod  hath  blossomed,  pride  hath  budded. 
Violence  is  risen  up.^^ 

This  one  suggests  in  a  more  vigorous  manner 
than  the  language  would  indicate  the  punishment 
hanging  over  Jerusalem  on  account  of  her  wick- 
edness. 

Not  all  of  Ezeklel's  figures  are  harsh  in  char- 
acter. The  following  tells  how  Israel  is  to  be 
renewed  and  blessed  for  Jehovah's  sake: — 

But  ye,  O  mountains  of  Israel,  ye  shall  shoot  forth  your 
branches,  and  yield  your  fruit  to  my  people  of 
Israel.^^ 

ALLEGORY 

It  is  In  allegory  that  Ezekiel  seems  to  delight. 
Says  Lofthouse/^  concerning  his  allegories,  "Now 

'*Ezek.  XXXI:3.        "Ezek.  VII:io-ii.         "Ezek.  XXXVI:8. 
"  New  Century  Bible,  "Ezekiel,"  p.  lo. 


Ezekiel  and  Daniel  107 

he  carries  out  some  lengthy  symbolical  action — 
so  lengthy  that  we  wonder  if  it  ever  really  was 
acted." 

In  the  parable  of  the  wall  and  untempered  mor- 
tar we  perceive  the  breadth  of  Ezekiel's  knowl- 
edge. Here  the  superficial  work  of  false  Proph- 
ets is  characterized  in  a  scathing  manner: — 

Because,  even  because  they  have  seduced  my  people, 
saying.  Peace;  and  there  was  no  peace;  and  one  built  up 
a  wall,  and  lo,  others  daubed  it  with  untempered  mortar 
.  .  .  that  it  shall  fall:  there  shall  be  an  overflowing 
shower ;  ...  So  will  I  break  down  the  wall  that  ye  have 
daubed  with  untempered  mortar  .  .  .  and  it  shall  fall, 
and  ye  shall  be  consumed  in  the  midst  thereof.  .  .  .  The 
wall  is  no  more,  neither  they  that  daubed  it.*® 

An  allegory  richly  laden  with  meaning  is  the 
parable  of  the  lion  whelps.  Although  Israel  is  a 
lioness  she  has  lain  down  among  heathen  lion- 
esses and  unconsciously  adopted  their  evil  traits. 
Another  lesson  (from  verse  4)  is  that  the  other 
nations  are  becoming  alarmed  at  the  growing 
power  of  the  Israelitish  lioness.  As  a  consequence, 
Nebuchadnezzar  takes  her  to  Babylon  and  puts 
her  in  chains : — 

What  is  thy  mother?  A  lioness:  she  lay  down  among 
lions,  she  nourished  her  whelps  among  young  lions.  And 
she  brought  up  one  of  her  whelps;  it  became  a  young 
lion,  and  it  learned  to  catch  the  prey.  .  .  .  The  nations 
also  heard  of  him;  he  was  taken  in  their  pit,  and  they 

"Ezek.  XIII:io-i5. 


io8        Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

brought  him  with  chains  unto  the  land  of  Egypt  .  .  . 
then  she  took  another  of  her  whelps,  and  made  him  a 
young  lion.  .  .  .  And  he  knew  their  desolate  palaces,  and 
he  laid  waste  their  cities.  .  .  .  Then  the  nations  set 
against  him  on  every  side  ...  he  was  taken  in  their  pit. 
And  they  put  him  in  ward  in  chains,  and  brought  him  to 
the  king  of  Babylon.  .  .  .    ^^ 


Figures  of  Contiguity 

Figures  of  contiguity,  especially  metonymies 
and  synecdoches,  come  from  the  pen  of  Ezeklel 
with  readiness.  To  find  some  other  name  for 
things,  to  bring  the  spiritual  and  ethereal  within 
easy  range  of  the  common  mind,  and  at  the  same 
time  couch  them  In  poetical  diction.  Is  his  forte. 

SYNECDOCHE 

Ezeklel  has  some  choice  figures  of  synecdoche. 
His  familiarity  with  literary  things  Is  almost  un- 
limited. No  more  expressive  or  suggestive  figure 
can  be  found  than  the  following: — 


I  will  scatter  your  bones  round  about  your  altars. 


20 


In  Chapter  XVIII,  Ezeklel  carefully  states  the 
marks  of  a  good  man.    One  of  them  Is: — 

Hath  given  his  bread  to  the  hungry.^^ 
"Ezek.  XIX:2-9.  '"'Ezek.  VI  :5.  ^'Ezek.  XVIII 7. 


Ezekiel  and  Daniel  109 

The  author  has  many  forceful  methods  of  ex- 
pressing himself.  The  thorough  and  irreparable 
overthrow  of  Pharaoh  is  stated  in  the  following 
figure : — 

And  will  break  his  arms,  the  strong,  and  that  which  was 
broken. ^^ 

Ezekiel  evidently  believed  in  the  doctrine  of 
hell:— 


The  strong  among  the  mighty  shall  speak  to  him  out  of 
the  midst  of  hell.^^ 


METONYMY 

In  this  oft-quoted  excerpt  a  fine  philosophical 
question  is  raised.  It  is  difficult  to  get  away  from 
the  question  of  personal  responsibility  for  deeds 
done.  What  shall  be  done  with  the  fact  of  the 
"sins  of  the  fathers  being  visited  upon  the  chil- 
dren"? It  is  a  comfort  to  know  that  God  is 
just : — 

The  fathers  have  eaten  sour  grapes,  and  the  children's 
teeth  are  set  on  edge.-^ 

The  acquaintance  of  Ezekiel  with  the  Penta- 
teuch is  revealed  on  almost  every  page.     Some 

"Ezek.  XXX 122.        =^Ezek.  XXXII  :2i.        "Ezek.  XVIII  :2. 


no        Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

characteristics  of  the  promised  land  may  be  seen 
in : — 

a  land  .  .  .  flowing  with  milk  and  honey.^^ 

In  the  following  figure  we  note  again  Ezekiel's 
familiarity  with  the  history  and  law  of  the  Old 
Testament : — 

All  the  inhabitants  of  Egypt  shall  know  that  I  am  the 
Lord,  because  they  have  been  a  staff  of  reed  to  the 
house  of  Israel.^® 

Other  apt  metonymies  are: — 

"Prophesy  against  the  forest"  (Ch.  XX 146)  ;  "spread 
out  my  net  over  thee"  (Ch.  XXXII :3)  ;  "the  fire  of  my 
wrath"    (Ch.   XXXVIII.-ig). 

Figures  of  Contrast 
Ezekiel  is  not  lavish  with  this  class  of  imagery. 

EPIGRAM 

The  following  epigram  suggests  brevity  rather 
than  the  over-elaboration  of  which  Ezekiel  has 
been  accused: — 

The  soul  that  sinneth,  it  shall  die.^'' 
"Ezek.  XX  :6.  ""Ezek.  XXIX  :6.  "Ezek.  XVIII 4. 


Ezekiel  and  Daniel  iii 

Ezekiel,  at  that  early  stage  in  the  religious  life 
of  the  world,  had  grasped  the  larger  and  richer 
meaning  of  the  words  "life"  and  "death"  in 
their  relation  to  sin. 

INTERROGATION 

The  following  interrogation  speaks  volumes  in 
a  forceful  manner: — 

Have  I  any  pleasure  at  all  that  the  wicked  should  die? 
saith  the  Lord  God:  and  not  that  he  should  return 
from  his  ways,  and  live? 


28 


Ezekiel  is  a  first  class  Prophet  with  strong  men- 
tality. He  was  emotional  but  his  feelings  were 
subservient  to  his  reason.  The  excellent  arrange- 
ment found  in  his  Prophecy  leads  us  to  believe 
that  much  thinking  preceded  the  writing  of  his 
message.  Although  his  style  is  surpassed  by  that 
of  Isaiah  in  number  and  variety  of  figures,  it  has 
a  wonderful  luxuriance  of  detail. 

Daniel 

Strictly  speaking,  the  book  of  Daniel  should  not 
be  among  the  Prophecies,  for  it  is  apocryphal 
rather  than  Prophetical.  The  Prophets  rebuked 
sin,  foretold  judgments  and  promised  salvation 
to  all  who  would  meet  the  conditions.    The  writer 

"Ezek.  XVIII:23. 


112        Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

of  "Daniel"  gave  six  narratives  in  the  first  divi- 
sion (Chs.  I-VI)  of  his  book  and  in  the  second 
(Chs.  VII-XII)  recorded  visions  of  four  world 
empires — Chaldean,  Median,  Persian  and  Greco- 
Macedonian,  which  culminated  in  the  establish- 
ment of  an  eternal  kingdom. 

In  the  Prophecies  of  Ezekiel  and  Zechariah 
there  is  an  approach  to  the  apocalyptic  style  of 
Daniel.  Although  the  objects  presented  are  star- 
tling and  at  times  poetic,  there  is  a  calm  and  uni- 
form dignity  in  the  language.  Instead  of  being 
concerned  about  the  circumstances  of  his  times, 
the  writer  does  not  utter  a  single  note  of  author- 
ity or  use  the  term,  "Thus  saith  Jehovah." 

Instead  of  our  finding  in  Daniel  a  rich,  full 
style  similar  to  that  of  Isaiah,  there  is  artificiality 
and  "a  sounding  oratorical  stateliness."  The  book 
is  rhetorical  rather  than  poetic,  stately  rather  than 
ecstatic,  diffuse  rather  than  pointed.  It  is  much 
inferior  to  the  other  Major  Prophets  in  depth 
and  power,  there  being  slight  spontaneity  and  al- 
most no  profound  play  on  words.^^ 

The  evidence,  which  shows  conclusively  that  it 
was  written  in  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes, 
may  account  for  the  indifferent  style,  as  the  style 
of  Hebrew  writers  deteriorated  from  the  time  of 
Ezekial.  Apocryphal  literature  contains  a  larger 
supernatural  element  and  is  written  for  subsequent 

'^  See  Expositors  Bible,  p.  19  f.  also  p.  84. 


Ezekiel  and  Daniel  113 

times  rather  than  the  present.     Bishop  Westcott 
terms  Daniel  a  commentator  to  the  Prophets. 

We  would  not  underestimate  the  value  of  the 
book  of  Daniel.  It  contains  thrilling  lessons  of 
encouragement  and  inspiration.  It  gives  in  Chap- 
ter XII  :2  the  first  plainly  expressed  hope  of  res- 
urrection. It  deals  in  a  large  way  with  angelology 
and  shows  in  a  conclusive  manner  that  the  king- 
dom of  God  will  ultimately  triumph.  However, 
in  the  matter  of  noble  style  and  ''intrinsic  dignity 
and  worth  it  is  always  placed  by  the  instinct  and 
conscience  of  mankind  on  a  lower  grade  than  such 
out-pourings  of  Divine  teachings  as  breathe  and 
burn  through  the  pages  of  David  and  an 
Isaiah.''  3o 

Figures 

After  the  above  estimate  of  the  style  of  Daniel, 
we  do  not  expect  many  figures  of  speech.  The 
figures  found  are  neither  as  vigorous  nor  force- 
ful as  those  of  most  of  the  other  Prophets.  A 
few  excerpts  will  show  the  writer's  use  of  im- 
agery. 

Figures  of  Resemblance 

SIMILE 

Referring  to  the  punishment  of  King  Nebuch- 
adnezzar we  read: — 

*°  Bishop  Westcott  in  Expositors  Bible,  "Daniel,"  p.  34. 


114        Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

He  was  driven  from  men,  and  did  eat  grass  as  oxen,  and 
his  body  was  wet  with  the  dew  of  heaven,  till  his 
hairs  were  grown  like  eagle's  feathers,  and  his  nails 
like  birds'  claws :  ^^ 

The  similes  in  Chapter  X:6  make  us  think  of 
Revelation.  This  is  the  description  of  the  man 
Daniel  saw  In  a  vision  by  the  river  HIddekel. 
In  conception  It  approaches  the  poetical: — u 

His  body  was  like  the  beryl,  and  his  face  as  the  appear- 
ance of  lightning,  and  his  eyes  as  lamps  of  fire,  and 
his  arms  and  his  feet  like  in  color  to  polished  brass, 
and  the  voice  of  his  words  like  the  voice  of  a  multi- 
tude. 


Figures  of  Contiguity 

metonymy 
A  rather  Inelegant  metonymy  Is : — 

Ye  shall  be  cut  in  pieces,  and  your  houses  shall  be  made 
a  (dung-hill). 22 

EXCLAMATION 

After  the  delivery  of  the  three  Hebrew  chil- 
dren from  the  fiery  furnace  Nebuchadnezzar 
breaks  forth  In  the  following  exclamation  concern- 
ing God : — 

''Dan.  IV:33.  "Dan.  II 15. 


Ezekiel  and  Daniel  115 

How  great  are  His  signs!  and  how  mighty  are  His 
wonders !  ^^ 

HYPERBOLE 

Perhaps  the  finest  figure  the  book  contains  is 
the  following  hyperbole.  It  is  a  portion  of  the 
recital  of  the  dream  in  which  Nebuchadnezzar  saw 
the  overthrow  of  his  kingdom: — 

The  tree  grew,  and  was  strong,  and  the  height  thereof 
reached  unto  heaven,  and  the  sight  thereof  to  the  end 
of  all  the  earth:  The  leaves  thereof  were  fair  and 
the  fruit  thereof  much,  and  it  was  meat  for  all:  the 
beasts  of  the  field  had  shadow  under  it,  and  the 
fowls  of  the  heaven  dwelt  in  the  boughs  thereof,  and 
all  flesh  was  fed  of  it. 

The  Book  of  Daniel  was  written  by  a  man  of 
wide  outlook  and  broad  sympathies.  Being  a 
true  historian  he  could  see  a  God  of  power  and 
might  transforming  nations  at  His  will.  No  pains 
were  spared  to  encourage  the  doers  of  righteous- 
ness and  to  nerve  them  for  their  conflicts. 

''Dan.  IV :3. 


,  CHAPTER  VII 

'  HOSEA,  JOEL  AND  AMOS 

V.' 

HoSEA 

HOSEA  was  the  son  of  Beeri  and  began  his 
Prophetic  career  in  the  reign  of  Uzziah. 
He  almost  startled  the  world  with  the  allegory 
of  his  marriage  relations  which  we  have  been 
taught  to  believe  is  true. 

In  general  knowledge  of  his  times  and  the  vari- 
ous local  conditions,  Hosea  is  comparable  to 
Isaiah  and  Ezekiel.  He  is  not  narrow.  On  the 
contrary,  he  suggests  many  of  the  doctrines  which 
were  developed  more  elaborately  by  the  later 
Prophets. 

Because  of  his  deep  emotions  and  the  early, 
primeval  condition  of  the  Hebrew  language,  his 
style  is  laconic  almost  to  abruptness.  Jerome  ad- 
mires him  for  condensation  and  brevity.^  His  in- 
tense realization  of  the  conditions  in  Israel,  min- 
gled with  his  sympathetic  yearning  for  her  wel- 
fare, forces  him  irresistibly  forward  with  his  mes- 

^  International  Ency.,  Vol.  VII. 

Ii6 


Hosea,  Joel  and  Amos  117 

sage.  By  every  variety  of  Image  and  suggestion 
he  seeks  to  open  the  eyes  of  Israel  to  her  danger. 
Rugged  transitions,  uncommon  words,  ellipses,  in- 
versions and  collocations  follow  one  another  in 
rapid  succession. 

While  his  style  is  neither  highly  polished  nor 
enchantingly  rhythmical,  these  qualities  are 
largely  compensated  for  by  a  deep  emotionalism 
and  fatherly  yearning  to  bless  his  people.  Ewald 
sums  up  his  style  in  these  words:  "A  rich  and 
lively  imagination,  a  pregnant  fullness  of  language, 
and,  in  spite  of  many  strong  figures,  great  tender- 
ness and  warmth  of  expression.  His  poetry  is 
throughout  purely  original,  replete  with  vigor  of 
thought  and  purity  of  presentation,  yet  at  one 
time  we  find  the  gentle  and  flowing  predominat- 
ing in  his  style,  while  at  another  it  is  violently 
strained  and  abrupt." 

Hosea  was  a  very  conscientious  eighth  century 
Prophet  with  an  intense  but  sympathetic  personal- 
ity. Correct  conceptions  of  the  functions  of  both 
the  law  and  gospel  were  in  his  mind.  The  law 
must  have  its  way  with  the  sinful  Israelites  unless 
they  can  be  made  to  realize  the  love  of  Jehovah 
and  fulfill  the  condition  for  receiving  that  love 
through  repentance.  How  tenderly  he  appeals 
to  Israel  (Ch.  XIV)  to  repent,  and  return  to 
God,  and  how  he  dwells  and  hangs  upon  the  least 
sign  of  his  people's  repentance !     But  again  the 


1 1 8        Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

memory  of  their  sins  cannot  be  obliterated  and 
he  appeals,  upbraids  and  denounces. 

Hosea's  is  a  great  soul.  The  judicial  side  of 
his  nature  is  not  trained  at  the  expense  of  the 
sympathetic.  He  is  as  passionate  in  his  expres- 
sions of  tenderness  as  in  his  denunciations  of  sin. 
Mighty  conceptions  crowd  into  his  mind  so  rap- 
idly that  he  hasn't  time  to  pohsh  his  work.  His 
Prophecy  contains  something  of  the  mourning 
found  in  Jeremiah's,  yet  there  is  at  times  a  note 
of  confidence  not  found  in  the  message  of  the 
"weeping  Prophet." 

The  early  date  of  his  writings  accounts  for 
the  large  number  of  unusual  and  uncommon 
words.  He  writes  like  a  nervous,  excited  person. 
Observe  the  following: — 

By  swearing,  and  lying,  and  killing,  and  stealing,  and 

committing  adultery,  they  break  out.^ 
Hear  the  word  of  the  Lord,  ye  children  of  Israel.^ 
Come,  let  us  return  unto  the  Lord: 
For  He  hath  torn  and  He  will  heal  us.* 

Figures 

Considering  the  length  of  his  Prophecy,  many 
figures  are  found.  Hosea  belonged  to  the  type 
of  men  who  would  use  imagery.  Common,  prosaic 
language  was  not  sufficiently  expressive  for  him. 

'Hos.  IV  :2.  'Hos.  IV  :i.  *  Hos.  VI  :i. 


Hosea,  Joel  and  Amos  119 

"His  style  has  all  the  restlessness  and  irritability 
of  hunger."  ^ 

Figures  of  Resemblance 

SIMILE 

He  has  an  abundance  of  figures  of  resemblance. 
What  a  strong  full  simile  is  the  first ! — 

The  number  of  the  children  of  Israel  shall  be  as  the  sand 
of  the  sea.® 

A  Prophet  having  the  deep  feeling  and  clear 
vision  of  Hosea  can  conceive  of  God  punishing 
sinful  nations  in  the  manner  of  a  lion.  The  As- 
syrians and  Babylonians  were  the  *'lion"  and 
"young  lion"  that  did  the  effective  work: — 

For  I  will  be  unto  Ephraim  as  a  lion, 
And  as  a  young  lion  to  the  house  of  Judah.'^ 

To  show  the  unstable  quality  of  Judah's  good- 
ness it  is  characterized  thus : — 

For  your  goodness  is  as  a  morning  cloud.® 

The  dove  is  easily  caught  in  the  net  while  hav- 
ing its  interest  centered  on  food.  It  is  simple  and 
has  no  bitterness. 

^Expositors  Bible,  Vol.  I.  p.  219. 

"Hos.  I:io.  'Hos.  V:i4.  '  Hos.  VI  :4. 


120        Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

Ephraim  also  is  like  a  silly  dove  without  heart.^ 

One  of  the  richest  figures  to  be  found  in  Ho- 
sea's  writings  is  the  simile  in  the  fourteenth  chap- 
ter. This  will  compare  favorably  with  any  in 
the  Scriptures.  The  dew  stands  for  moisture,  fer- 
tility and  f niitfulness ;  the  lily  for  purity,  beauty 
and  perfume;  Lebanon  for  stability  and  strength; 
the  olive  tree  for  spiritual  graces;  and  Lebanon 
for  fragrance.  It  is  difficult  to  see  how  the  good- 
ness and  tenderness  of  God  could  be  stated  bet- 
ter. This  figure  ranks  Hosea  as  a  great  poet  and 
a  great  Prophet: — 

I  will  be  as  the  dew  unto  Israel: 

He  shall  grow  as  the  lily, 

And  cast  forth  his  roots  as  Lebanon. 

His  branches  shall  spread, 

And  his  beauty  shall  be  as  the  olive  tree 

And  his  smell  as  Lebanon.^^ 

METAPHOR 

The  apostasy  of  Israel  is  strongly  suggested  in 
the  following  figure : — 

He  is  a  merchant,  the  balances  of  deceit  are  in  his  hand.^^ 
PERSONIFICATION 

As  illustrations  of  personification  we  find  these 
expressions :  "Shall  the  land  mourn  ?"  ( Ch.  IV  :3 ) , 

•Hos.  VII:ii.  "Hos.  XIV:5-6.  "Hos.  XII:7. 


Hosea,  Joel  and  Amos  121 

also  "The  wind  hath  bound  her  (Ephrlam)  up 
in  her  wings"  (Ch.  IV:i9).  Hosea's  classical 
example  of  personification  is : — 

O  death,  I  will  be  thy  plagues; 

O  grave,  I  will  be  thy  destruction.^^ 

Figures  of  Contiguity 

metonymy 
Two  examples  of  metonymy  are : — 

"break  the  bow  of  Israel"  (Ch.  1:5)  '■>  "give  me  my  bread 
and  my  water"   (Ch.  11:5). 

Another  illustration  of  this  class  of  figures  is : — 

For  they  have  sown  the  wind,  and  they  shall  reap  the 
whirlwind.^^ 

Figures  of  Contrast 

interrogation 

In  figures  of  contrast  Hosea's  writings  do  not 
abound.  Some  of  his  most  startling  statements, 
however,  belong  to  this  class.  We  notice  a  typ- 
ical interrogation.  It  is  the  final  hope  of  Hosea 
for  Israel. 

"Hos.  XIII  :i4.  "Hos.  VIII 7. 


122        Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

Ephrafm  shall  say,  what  have  I  to  do  any  more  with 

idols?  .  .  . 
Who  is  wise,  and  he  shall  understand  these  things? 
Prudent,  and  he  shall  know  them  ?  ^* 

Hosea's  greatest  difficulty  was  to  find  words  suf- 
ficiently expressive  to  portray  the  kindness  and 
tenderness  of  God.  Other  Prophets  accomplished 
their  purposes  by  close  reasoning  and  cogent  logic. 
Hosea  felt  that  his  duty  was  to  depict  the  great 
Father  heart  of  God. 

His  style  might  have  been  stronger  if  his  heart 
had  not  been  so  tender.  It  would  not  allow  him 
to  follow  his  lines  of  reason  to  their  ultimate  con- 
clusion. He  loved  Israel  and  knew  that  God 
loved  her.  How  he  longed  for  her  repentance. 
If  Israel  only  knew  God  she  would  love  Him. 

Joel 

Three  facts  concerning  Joel  are  evident:  uncer- 
tainty as  to  the  time  he  lived,  his  polished,  elegant 
and  vivid  style  and  his  deep  spirituality. 

As  a  man  Joel  was  calm  and  serene.  The 
doubts  and  struggles  that  seemed  to  cause  the 
other  Hebrew  poets  and  Prophets  so  much  anxiety 
did  not  disturb  him.  This  may  account  for  his 
neither  having  mentioned  the  Assyrians  or  Baby- 
lonians in  his  Prophecy  nor  charged  the  people 
with  national  sins.^^ 


"Hos.  XIV:8-9. 

"  Sara.   Cox  in  Biblical  Illustrator. 


Hosea,  Joel  and  Amos  123 

He  was  either  the  first  or  the  last  of  the  Proph- 
ets. If  he  was  the  earliest,  the  other  Prophets 
imitated  him,  if  the  latest  he  Imitated  the  others. 
The  history  of  the  Interpretation  of  the  book  de- 
pends on  whether  the  story  of  the  locusts  is  literal 
or  allegorical.  The  most  modern  scholarship 
treats  the  locust  invasion  as  a  real  plague  and 
places  Joel  after  500  B.  C.  His  style  being  much 
more  like  the  later  Isaiah's  than  Hosea's  also 
argues  for  the  later  perlod.^^  It  appears  that 
those  who  place  him  early  In  Prophetic  history 
strive  to  make  his  style  similar  to  that  of  Hosea 
and  Isaiah,  and  that  those  who  would  make  him 
the  last  of  the  Prophets,  as  Bewer,  term  his  style 
"clear,  fluent  and  beautiful."  ^'^  It  seems  to  us 
that  the  "blending  of  energy  and  softness  is  the 
secret  of  the  beauty  of  Joel's  diction."  ^^  The 
bases  for  this  lie  in  the  individuality  and  personal- 
ity of  the  man. 

Although  there  is  much  difference  of  opinion  as 
to  the  merits  of  Joel's  Writings,  many  glowing 
tributes  have  been  paid  to  the  man  and  his  style. 
It  is  "very  poetic,  shows  great  sympathy  both 
with  nature  and  humanity.  It  Is  pure,  severe,  fin- 
ished, full  of  happy  rhythms,  and  easy,  graceful 

^'Cambridge   Bible,   p.   24;    New   Century  Bible,   p.   3,   4,    5; 
Schaff-Herzog  Ency.,  Art.   "Joel." 

"J.  A.  Bewer,  International  Commentary,  p.  62. 
"  Lange's  Commentary,   Vol.  XIV,  p.   5. 


124        Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

terms."  ^^  "The  Prophecy  is  full  of  oriental  sym- 
bolism and  is  pervaded  by  a  tone  of  solemn  warn- 
ing. It  is  gorgeous  in  a  profusion  of  imagery.  .  .  . 
The  language  is  smooth  and  flowing."  ^^ 

Bewer  does  not  call  him  a  great  thinker  but  "a 
poet  of  clear  and  beautiful  style."  ^^  The  lyrical 
quality  of  some  of  his  lines  places  them  among  the 
best  of  their  kind  in  the  Old  Testament.  The, 
book  is  written  in  meter  (hexameter,  pentameter 
and  tetrameter).  The  one  most  frequently  used 
is  a  staccato  movement  of  the  tetrameter.  He 
chooses  expressive  words  from  a  full,  diversified 
vocabulary. 

Figures 
Figures  of  Resemblance 

Of  striking  imagery  Joel  has  not  an  abundance. 
The  rugged  and  abrupt  expressions  we  found  in 
Hosea  are  smoothed  out.  The  love,  grace,  spirit- 
uality and  scholarship  of  the  man  all  contribute 
to  this. 

METAPHOR 

We  will  examine  his  imagery  by  calling  atten- 
tion to  several  figures.  An  expressive  metaphor 
is  found  in  Chapter  1 :6 : — 

"  See  G.  A.  Smith,  Expositors  Bible,  Vol.  II,  p.  376. 

^^  Ency.  Americana,  Vol.  IV. 

^J.  A.  Bewer,  International   Critical   Commentary,  p.  68   flF. 


Hosea,  Joel  and  Amos  125 

For  a  nation  is  come  upon  my  land, 
Strong,  and  without  number. 
Whose  teeth  are  the  teeth  of  a  lion, 
And  he  hath  the  cheek-teeth  of  a  great  lion. 

To  show  the  desolate  condition  of  the  land  after 
the  visitation  of  the  locusts,  Joel  represents  the 
animals  as  feeling  badly.  Not  only  do  the  cattle 
mourn,  but  there  is  not  even  short  grass  for  the 
flocks  to  nibble : — 

How  do  the  beasts  groan ! 

The  herds  of  cattle  are  perplexed. 

Because  they  have  no  pasture; 

Yea,  the  flocks  of  sheep  are  made  desolate.^^ 

PERSONIFICATION 

Perhaps  the  richest  figure  in  Joel's  Prophecy 
is  found  in  Chapter  II:2i,  22.  Here  personifica- 
tion and  metonymy  are  blended.  The  Prophet 
feels  that  God  is  greater  than  any  destruction  that 
can  come  upon  the  objects  of  His  creation.  If  de- 
struction has  come,  God  will  more  than  compen- 
sate for  this.  Even  while  Joel  speaks,  he  sees 
the  "pastures  .  .  .  spring"  and  the  "tree  bear 
fruit"  :— 

Fear  not,  O  land ;  be  glad  and  rejoice : 
For  the  Lord  will  do  great  things. 
Be  not  afraid,  ye  beasts  of  the  field : 

"Joel  I:i8. 


126        Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

For  the  pastures  of  the  wilderness  do  spring, 

For  the  tree  beareth  her  fruit, 

The  fig-tree  and  the  vine  do  yield  their  strength.^* 

Figures  of  Contiguity 

synecdoche 

The  vividness  of  Joel's  style  is  seen  in  the  fol- 
lowing imagery  in  which  interrogation  and  synec- 
doche are  blended: — 


Is  not  the  meat  cut  off  before  your  eyes? 


24 


SYNECDOCHE   AND   METONYMY 

Another  select  illustration  in  which  synecdoche 
and  metonymy  are  mixed  is  found  in  Chapter 
III:i8:— 

And  it  shall  come  to  pass  in  that  day, 
That  the  mountains  shall  drop  down  new  wine, 
And  the  hills  shall  flow  with  milk, 
And  all  the  rivers  of  Judah  shall  flow  with  waters. 
And  a  fountain  shall  come  forth  of  the  house  of   the 
Lord. 

In  this  figure  with  the  following  verses  the  pros- 
perity and  riches  of  the  Lord's  land  is  beautifully 
contrasted  with  the  desolation  of  secular  countries. 

In  the  Prophet  Joel,  sublimity,  tenderness  and 
spirituality  are  combined  in  beautiful  proportions. 

''Joel  11:21-22.  "Joel  I:i6. 


Hosea,  Joel  and  Amos  127 

He  has  been  called  "the  Old  Testament  Prophet 
of  the  Holy  Ghost."  ^^  He  has  the  happy  faculty 
of  portraying  in  glorious  visions  the  blessed  results 
of  obedience  and  righteousness. 

Amos 

Israel  had  become  sinful.  Pride,  injustice  and 
luxury  ruled.  Military  prowess  had  robbed  her 
of  her  humility  and  self-indulgence  increased  with 
wealth.  Amos  came  into  this  situation  a  moral 
teacher  and  rigorous  reformer  and  Prophet.  He 
told  the  plain  unvarnished  truth  about  the  facts 
of  Israel's  sin.  Unless  she  changed  greatly  her 
immorality  would  cause  her  downfall.  In  a  cour- 
ageous manner  he  relentlessly  denounced  the  no- 
bility. G.  A.  Smith  says,  "Into  politics  he  brings 
facts,  into  religion  vision,"  while  Cornill  calls  him 
"one  of  the  most  wonderful  appearances  in  the 
history  of  the  human  spirit." 

Amos  is  to  be  remembered  as  the  first  Prophet 
who  committed  his  Prophecies  to  writing.  Al- 
though they  show  cultivation  and  refinement  their 
excellencies  are  probably  the  result  of  the  great 
natural  ability  of  the  man  combined  with  thorough 
consecration. 

"The  style  of  Amos  corresponds  with  his  tem- 
perament   and   message."  ^^     He    has    not   been 

^  F.   C.  Cook,  Explanatory   and  Critical   Commentary. 
^Biblical  Illustrator. 


128        Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

spoiled  by  the  schools  nor  by  the  prosperity  and 
idolatry  of  the  people.  His  heart  was  right, 
therefore  his  vision  was  keen.  Being  courageous 
and  having  the  ability  to  see  clearly,  he  states  his 
message  in  a  terse,  graphic,  vigorous  manner.  His 
sentences  are  "firm  and  sharp."  His  poetry  is  at 
times  "austere  and  occasionally  savage."  ^^  In 
rugged,  grand  and  striking  sublimity  he  is  seldom 
surpassed  by  any  other  Prophet.  Like  Ezekiel, 
he  delights  to  reiterate  choice  and  telling  phrases, 
e.  g. : — 

"For  three  transgressions  and  for  four,"  "Yet  have  ye 
not  returned  to  me,  saith  the  Lord." 

Jerome  terms  him  "rude  in  speech,  but  not  in 
knowledge."  If  there  had  been  a  little  more  of 
the  sympathetic  element  in  his  nature  some  of  the 
disagreeable  bluntness  might  have  been  avoided. 
His  work,  however,  was  not  to  be  done  in  a 
smooth,  agreeable  manner.  Israel  needed  to  be 
aroused  by  "short  threatenings,  short  prayers,  sud- 
den exclamations,  and  startling  questions."  Al- 
though not  a  school  man,  he  had  read  widely  and 
was  a  "master  of  the  language  he  used."  A  fine 
literary  climax  in  his  Prophecy  is  Chapter  III  13-8, 
and  in  Chapter  IV,  verses  6,  8,  9,  10,  11,  may  b^ 
found  a  splendid  example  of  refrain. 

"  G.  A.  Smith,  Expositors  Bible,  p.  72. 


Hosea,  Joel  and  Amos  129 

Figures 

The  Prophecies  of  Amos  abound  in  original, 
lofty  imagery.  The  boldness  of  his  style  indi- 
cates the  nature  of  the  man. 

Figures  of  Resemblance 

SIMILE 

One  would  scarcely  find  a  more  original  and 
telling  simile  than: — 

And  ye  were  as  a  firebrand  plucked  out  of  the  burning.^® 

Figures  of  Contiguity 

metonymy 

In  the  following  figure  the  asperity  and  impa- 
tience of  the  Prophet  are  evident.  The  term 
"kine"  is  suggestive  of  the  weaknesses  of  the 
women  of  Samaria: — 

Hear  this  word,  ye  kine  of  Bashan,  that  are  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Samaria.^^ 

A  well-known  metonymy  is  that  concerning  the 
plumb-line.  The  inhabitants  of  Israel  are  all  to 
be  tried  by  the  same  rule : — 

^AmosIV:ii.  ^Amos  IV:i. 


130        Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

Then  said  the  Lord, 

Behold,  I  will  set  a  plumb-line  in  the  midst  of  my  people 

Israel : 
I  will  not  again  pass  by  them  any  more: 
And  the  high  places  of  Isaac  shall  be  desolate. 
And  the  sanctuaries  of  Israel  shall  be  laid  waste.^^ 

Amos'  stern  denunciation  of  the  vices  and  lux- 
uriousness  of  the  rich  Israelites  is  portrayed  in 
the  following  figure  of  contiguity: — 

And   I   will  smite  the  winter-house  with   the   summer- 
house  ; 
And  the  houses  of  ivory  shall  perish, 
And  the  great  houses  shall  have  an  end,  saith  the  Lord.^^ 

Figures  of  Contrast 

interrogation 

In  the  following  interrogation  Amos  suggests  in 
his  own  startling  manner  that  all  effects  have 
causes.  He  is  justifying  himself  for  uttering 
Prophecies  concerning  Israel: — 

Can  two  walk  together,  except  they  be  agreed  ? 
Will  a  lion  roar  in  the  forest,  when  he  hath  no  prey? 
Will  a  young  lion  cry  out  of  his  den,  if  he  hath  taken 

nothing? 
Can  a  bird  fall  in  a  snare  upon  the  earth,  where  no  gin  is 

for  him  ? 
Shall  one  take  up  a  snare  from  the  earth,  and  have  taken 

nothing  at  all? 

""Amos  VII :8,  9.  ""Amos  III  115. 


Hosea,  Joel  and  Amos  131 

Shall  a  trumpet  be  blown  in  the  city,  and  the  people  not 
be  afraid? 

Shall  there  be  evil  in  a  city,  and  the  Lord  hath  not  done 

it?  ^2 

Unlike  Hosea,  Amos'  tenderness  of  heart  did 
not  affect  his  style.  When  occasions  demanded 
it,  he  told  truths  concerning  the  sinfulness  of  the 
people  and  the  righteousness  of  God.  Jehovah 
could  be  satisfied  only  with  spiritual  sacrifices. 
Though  such  teaching  might  antagonize  the  Is- 
raelites, it  was  for  their  good. 

Amos  exhibits  a  mastery  of  Hebrew  expression. 
Being  a  careful  observer  of  social  and  political 
life,  he  had  a  message,  which  is  a  prime  requisite 
for  a  good  style. 
''Amos  111:3-6. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

obadiah,  jonah,  micah  and  nahum 

Obadiah 

A  BOOK  with  only  twenty-one  verses  must 
be  remarkable  in  some  particular  to  have 
withstood  the  ravages  of  time  and  to  have  ob- 
tained a  place  in  the  Scripture  Canon.  It  deals 
only  with  the  "doom  upon  Edom  and  exultation 
in  its  overthrow."  "There  is  no  spiritual  mes- 
sage," "no  word  of  sin  or  righteousness,  or 
mercy."  ^  It  contains  no  allusion  to  the  descent 
of  the  author,  his  birth-place  or  fortune.  There 
is  much  dispute  concerning  the  time  of  the 
Prophet;  some  putting  him  early  and  others  late. 
Obadiah  had  but  one  purpose  and  his  severely 
plain  but  energetic  diction  is  in  harmony  with  it. 
The  "graphic  descriptions,"  "striking  pictures," 
"quick  exclamations"  and  "impassioned  warnings 
throbbing  with  anger  and  sorrow"  ^  indicate  the 
strongly  passionate  nature  of  the  man.  The  sec- 
ond part  of  the  Prophecy  (Vers.  10-21)  is  not  as 

*  Expositors  Bible   (1903),  "Minor  Prophets,"  Vol.  II,  p.  178. 
'J.  A.  Bewer,  International  Critical  Commentary,  p.  13. 

132 


Obadiah,  Jonah,  Mic-ah  and  Nahum    133 

forceful  as  the  first  (Vers.  1-9),  although  the 
words  are  full  of  meaning.  His  few  words  sug- 
gest many  thoughts  and  are  a  memorable  rebuke 
to  fraternal  hardness  of  heart."  ^ 

The  language  of  the  book  is  simple,  pure  and 
idiomatic.  It  is  never  monotonous  and  is  often 
poetic.  The  arrangement  is  good  and  a  sequence 
of  thought  runs  through  the  whole. 

Figures 

A  few  figures  will  show  Obadiah's  facility  in 
imagery. 

An  excellent  example  of  synecdoche  is : — 

They  that  eat  thy  bread  have  laid  a  wound  under  thee: 
There  is  none  understanding  in  him.* 

To  show  the  completeness  of  the  fall  of  Edom, 
a  telling  interrogation  is  used : — 

If  thieves  come  to  thee,   if  robbers  by  night   (how  art 

thou  cut  off!) 
Would  they  not  have  stolen  until  they  had  enough? 
If  the  grape  gatherers  came  to  thee, 
Would  they  not  leave  some  grapes  ?  ^ 

The  Prophecy  is  somewhat  ambiguous,  for  the 
writer  undertakes  to  handle  a  question  (the  con- 
flict between  Edom  and  Israel)    that  cannot  be 

"  G.  Gilfillan,  Bards  of  the  Bible,  p.  178. 

*  Obadiah,  Verse  7.  ^  Obadlah,  Verse  5. 


134        Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

adequately  treated  within  the  small  compass  of 
the  book. 

Jonah 

One  of  the  most  abused  and  misunderstood 
books  of  the  Bible  is  that  of  the  Prophet  Jonah. 
The  reason  may  be  that  it  contains  so  much  that 
is  distasteful  to  modern  life.  In  every  age  there 
have  been  people  who  wanted  to  get  away  from 
duty  and  God;  who  could  see  nothing  beyond  their 
own  narrow  sphere;  who  cared  but  little  whether 
the  world  is  saved  or  not;  who  could  see  no  good- 
ness in  any  people  that  didn't  belong  to  their  sect; 
who  needed  to  be  taught  concerning  the  humanity 
of  God. 

For  a  book  to  have  been  written  before  the 
time  of  Christ  which  has  the  originality  of  thought 
and  breadth  of  conception  exhibited  here,  is  little 
less  than  marvelous.  Jewish  legalism  and  big- 
otry receive  a  telling  blow  in  this  Prophecy.  We 
get  the  first  intimation  that  the  soul  of  the  Gentile 
as  well  as  that  of  the  Jew  may  be  saved — ^that 
God  is  no  respecter  of  persons.  The  missionary 
idea  is  taught  as  plainly  as  anywhere  else  in  the 
Bible.  Another  lesson  is  that  nothing  will  broaden 
a  person  so  much  as  working  for  God. 

Although  the  book  contains  but  little  true 
poetry  and  few  figures,  it  is  interesting  from  the 
literary  viewpoint.    Every  word  is  suggestive  and 


Ohadiahy  Jonah,  Micah  and  Nahum    135 

is  freighted  with  meaning.  In  directness  and 
swiftness  of  execution  the  Prophecy  reminds  us 
of  the  book  of  Job. 

The  style  of  the  book  belongs  to  the  later  He- 
brew.   This  may  account  for  its  finished  character. 

Figures 

A  common  figure  of  personification  is  found  in 
Chapter  1 115  : — 

The  sea  ceased  from  her  raging. 

The  book  contains  several  rather  prosaic  inter- 
rogations and  closes  with  one  of  the  best. 

The  writer  of  the  book  of  Jonah  is  a  word- 
painter  of  extraordinary  ability.  How  rapidly  the 
pictures  pass  before  us.  The  fleeing  man,  the 
storm,  the  fish,  the  repentant  city,  and  the  gourd. 
The  Book  is  a  constant  rebuke  to  narrowness  and 
contains  many  well-taught  lessons. 

MiCAH 

Micah's  is  one  of  the  truly  great  minor  Prophe- 
cies. A  younger  contemporary  of  Isaiah,  Micah 
is  only  partially  eclipsed  by  this  prince  of  Proph- 
ets. The  problems  for  the  Prophet  in  Micah's 
time  were  the  same  as  those  in  Isaiah's.  He 
faced  them  in  a  manner  which  indicated  that  he 


136        Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

had  all  the  qualities  of  the  true  Prophet — per- 
sonality, spirituality,  courage,  faithfulness  and 
vision. 

Two  parties  in  Jerusalem  were  proving  the 
weakness  of  King  Hezekiah.  If  Micah  had  been 
so  disposed,  he  might  have  played  a  political  role 
similar  to  that  of  Isaiah.  He  didn't  do  this,  how- 
ever, preferring  to  confine  his  labors  entirely  to 
the  realm  of  the  ethical  and  religious.  Some- 
thing must  be  done  to  correct  the  conception  that 
the  people  have  of  God.  Through  contact  with 
worldly  powers  God's  people  were  becoming  com- 
mercial. Power  was  more  important  than  char- 
acter and  ritual  was  taking  the  place  of  spiritual- 
ity. With  the  other  Prophets,  Micah  seeks  to 
elevate  the  idea  of  God,  knowing  that  this  is  the 
best  way  to  raise  the  standard  of  life. 

Two  facts  lent  strength  and  gave  breadth  to 
Micah's  labors :  First,  he  understood  the  common 
people  and  their  needs,  and  was  their  champion. 
Second,  his  nature  was  comprehensive;  "he  had 
Amos'  passion  for  justice  with  Hosea's  heart  of 
love."  ^  To  serve  his  country  and  his  God  well 
was  Micah's  highest  ambition,  and  he  allowed  no 
seeming  worldly  good  to  stand  in  the  way  of  its 
attainment.  He  was  brave,  and  the  story  of  his 
fearlessness  lived  on  (Jer.  XXVIriy-iQ),  a  "bea- 

'J.  M.  P.  Smith,  International  Critical  Commentary,  p.  18. 


Ohadiah,  Jonah,  Aiioak  and  Nahiim     137 

con   light   to   check   the    vicious    and    cheer   the 
brave."  "^ 

The  style  of  Micah  is  also  the  delight  of  lovers 
of  literature.  His  vocabulary  is  rich  and  com- 
plete while  condensation  of  language,  force  and 
picturesqueness  with  deep  feeling  and  logical  de- 
velopment may  be  noticed  everywhere.  In  his 
writings  Micah  is  not  governed  by  formal  rules. 
He  is  too  energetic,  impulsive  and  excitable.  The 
rugged  and  abrupt  character  of  his  message  is 
greatly  modified  by  his  "plastic  choice  of  words," 
and  many  artistic  turns  of  expression.  The  plan 
of  his  discourses  is  easily  discovered,  showing 
symmetry  and  regularity. 

Figures 

We  can  easily  conceive  how  a  person  of  Micah's 
temperament  would  receive  pleasure  from  the  use 
of  figures.  The  character  of  the  man  is  revealed 
in  his  many  expressions  noted  for  fine  poetry, 
rugged  majesty  and  lofty  spirituality. 

Figures  of  Resemblance 

SIMILE 

To  indicate  the  utter  desolation  of  Samaria  the 
Prophet  uses  the  following  simile: — 

''  New  Century  Bible,  "Minor  Prophets,"  p.  225. 


138        Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

Therefore  I  will  make  Samaria  as  an  heap  of  the  field, 
And  as  plantings  of  a  vineyard.^ 

A  richer  simile  which  reminds  one  of  the  lan- 
guage and  spirit  of  Hosea  is : — 

And  the  remnant  of  Jacob  shall  be  in  the  midst  of  many 

people 
As  a  dew  from  the  Lord, 
As  the  showers  upon  the  grass, 
That  tarrieth  not  for  man, 
Nor  waiteth  for  the  sons  of  men. 
And  the  remnant  of  Jacob  shall  be  among  the 
Gentiles  in  the  midst  of  many  people 
As  a  lion  among  the  beasts  of  the  forest, 
As  a  young  lion  among  the  flocks  of  sheep.® 

A  pointed  simile  is : — 

The  best  of  them  is  as  a  brier.^'^ 

Whether  the  briers  symbolize  things  that  are 
harsh,  catching  and  holding  all  that  pass  by,  or 
what  is  worthless,  the  figure  thoroughly  accom- 
plishes its  purpose. 

METAPHOR 

An  expressive  metaphor  is: — 

For  I  will  make  thine  horn  iron. 
And   I  will  make  thy  hoofs  brass.^^ 

'Micah  1:6.  "Micah  ¥7,  8.  '"Micah  VII  ^- 

"Micah  IV:i3 


Obadiah,  Jonah,  Mioah  and  Nahum    139 

To  teach  a  characteristic  of  the  coming  Prince 
of  Peace  ( reminding  us  of  Isaiah)  he  writes: — 

And  this  man  shall  be  the  peace.^^ 

Micah  has  something  of  the  vision  of  Isaiah 
concerning  the  coming  Redeemer.  To  banish  dis- 
tress and  give  gladness  and  true  discernment  he 
says : — 

When  I  sit  in  darkness,  the  Lord  shall  be  a  light  unto 


me. 


13 


Figures  of  Contiguity 

metonymy 

The  boldness  of  Micah's  style  may  be  seen  in 
the  second  verse  of  the  first  chapter.  He  feels 
that  his  utterances  should  command  the  attention 
of  the  earth.  The  way  Israel  listens  and  obeys 
will  have  much  to  do  with  the  future  of  the  king- 
dom of  God.    Hence  he  says  in  bold  metonymy : — 

Hear,  all  ye  people; 

Hearken,  O  earth,  and  all  that  therein  is.^* 

With  some  of  the  other  Prophets  he  bewails 
the  fact  that  Israel  has  not  repented  of  her  sins. 

"  Micah  V 15.  "  Micah  VII  :8.  "  Micah  1 .2. 


140        Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

He  feels  that  the  day  of  grace  is  past,  hence  he 
says : — 

For  her  wound  is  uncurable.^^ 

The  officials  and  people  in  authority  have  not 
paid  sufficient  attention  to  Israel's  condition,  so 
he  admonishes  them: — 

Hear,  I  pray  you,  O  heads  of  Jacob, 
And  ye  princes  of  the  house  of  Israel.^^ 

The  following  metonymy  may  refer  to  a  vil- 
lage near  Bethlehem  as  the  probable  birthplace 
of  the  coming  Messiah,  or  to  the  fact  that  royal 
power  shall  be  restored  to  Jerusalem : — 

And  thou,  O  tower  of  the  flock. 

The  stronghold  of  the  daughter  of  Zion, 

Unto  thee  shall  it  come,  even  the  first  dominion.^'^ 

To  make  a  deeper  impression  if  possible  upon 
the  entire  people  he  uses  these  words : — 

The  Lord's  voice  crieth  unto  the  city.^® 
A  figure  suggesting  caution: — 

Keep  the  doors  of  thy  mouth  from  her  that  lieth  in  thy 
bosom. ^^ 

"Micah  1:9.     "Micah  III:i.    "MicahIV:8.     ''MicahVI:9. 
"  Micah  VII  .s- 


Ohadiahy  Jonah,  Micak  and  Nahum     141 
A  beautiful  and  comforting  metonymy  is : — 

Feed  thy  people  with  thy  rod,  the  flock  of  thine  heri- 
tage.2o 

APOSTROPHE 

As  an  example  of  apostrophe  the  following  Is 
one  of  the  best : — 

Hear  ye,  O  mountains,  the  Lord's  controversy, 
And  ye  strong  foundations  of  the  earth.^^ 

Figures  of  Contrast 

interrogation 

To  show  that  mere  quantity  and  sacrifice  do 
not  please  God,  but  rather  the  devotion  of  the 
heart,  the  Prophet  uses  the  following  figure — a 
blending  of  interrogation  and  hyperbole : — 

Will  the  Lord  be  pleased  with  thousands  of  rams, 
Or  with  ten  thousands  of  rivers  of  oil? 
Shall  I  give  my  firstborn  for  my  transgression, 
The  fruit  of  my  body  for  the  sin  of  my  soul  ?  ^^ 

Hardly  too  much  praise  can  be  given  to  MIcah's 
literary  style.  He  is  a  "worthy  companion  of 
Isaiah."  In  the  plan,  proportion  and  symmetry 
of  his  Prophecy,  he  is  ideal.    The  last  two  chap- 

"*  Micah  VII  :i4.         "  Micah  VI  :2.  ""  Micah  VI 7. 


142        Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

ters  contain  some  of  the  finest  passages  in  the 
Bible. 

Nahum 

This  Propheq^  stands  for  intensity,  but  not  for 
breadth.  The  heinousness  of  Nineveh's  sin  has 
seized  the  soul  of  the  Prophet  and  he  can  think 
of  but  little  else.  In  the  first  chapter  he  speaks 
in  a  general  way  of  God's  judgments  on  the 
world.  In  the  following  he  discourses  to  Nineveh 
alone  and  seems  to  triumph  and  exult  over  her 
fall.  J.  M.  P.  Smith  ^^  calls  him  "narrow  and 
shallow"  and  G.  A.  Smith  says,  "A  worse  Prophet 
than  Zephaniah  with  less  conscience  and  less  in- 
sight." ^^  He  forgets  the  sins  of  his  own  people 
and  makes  no  mention  of  repentance.  Unlike 
Hosea,  he  paints  only  the  jealous  and  avenging 
attributes  of  God. 

The  remarkable  element  in  the  book  is  the  style 
of  the  writer.  His  Prophecy  is  one  concentrated 
shout  possessing  unity  of  subject  and  design.  Orig- 
inality, vivacity,  fancy  and  realism  are  a  few  of 
the  characteristics  of  the  impassioned  oratory  so 
evident  everywhere. 

The  language  is  strong  and  brilliant,  forcible 
and  graphic.  Other  Prophets  uttered  great  moral 
and  homiletical  truths,  but  not  Nahum.   He  even 

"■j.  M.  P.  Smith,  International  Critical  Commentary,  p.  281. 
"Expositors  Bible,  "Minor  Prophets,"  p.  88. 


Obadiah,  Jonah,  Mioaih  and  Nahum     143 

lays  aside  particles  and  not  a  single  unnecessary- 
word  Is  allowed  to  Interfere  with  the  purpose  of 
the  work,  to  grip  and  Influence  the  reader,  who 
is  persuaded  that  the  transactions  are  actually 
taking  place  before  his  face. 

Bishop  Lowth  says,  "Of  all  the  Minor  Proph- 
ets none  seems  to  reach  the  sublimity,  the  fire  and 
the  daring  spirit  of  Nahum."  -^  As  a  poet  he  is 
of  the  first  order.  Archaic  and  sonorous  forms 
are  frequent  and  the  lines  are  short  and  quick.^^ 
Nineveh  must  fall  amid  pomp  and  poetry. 

Figures 

A  slight  study  of  the  Prophecy  will  convince 
one  that  its  author  Is  no  novice  in  the  use  of  Image- 
ry. Every  figure  has  point  and  adds  strength 
to  the  whole. 

Figures  of  Resemblance 

SIMILE 

To  impress  upon  the  Ninevites  their  hopeless- 
ness, he  says  concerning  the  chariots  of  the  en- 
emy : — 

They  shall  seem  like  torches, 

They  shall  run  like  the  lightnings.^^ 

"  Hastings'  Bible   Dictionary,  Vol.  Ill,   p.  476. 
^G.  A.  Smith,  Expositors  Bible,  "Minor  Prophets,"  Vol.  II, 
p.  88.  ^  Nahum  11:4. 


144        Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

To  teach  the  contaminating  influences  of  Nine- 
veh the  Prophet  says : — 

But  Nineveh  is  of  old  like  a  pool  of  water.^® 

The  ease  with  which  Nineveh  may  be  destroyed 
is  thus  stated: — 


All  thy  strongholds  shall  be  like  fig-trees  with  the  first 
ripe  figs.^^ 

An  original  figure  is  the  following  which  teaches 
the  impotency  and  uselessness  of  Assyrian  officers 
in  the  day  of  calamity: — 

Thy  crowned  are  as  the  locusts,  and  thy  captains  as  the 
great  grasshoppers.^® 

In  all  these  figures  Nahum  "sticks  to  his  text" 
that  Nineveh  must  fall  and  be  utterly  ruined. 

METAPHOR 

In  the  following  metaphor  Nahum  seeks  to  im- 
press the  truth  that  those  who  trust  in  God  need 
not  fear  Him — only  His  enemies: — 

The  Lord  is  good,  a  stronghold  in  the  day  of  trouble.^^ 
"Nah.  11:8.        ^Nah.  III:i2.    '"Nah.   III:i7.    °Nah.  1:7. 


Obadiah,  Jonah,  Mic^h  and  Nahum     145 

PERSONIFICATION 

The  following  personification  has  the  manifest 
object  of  bringing  terror  and  dismay  to  the  inhab- 
itants of  Nineveh  by  impressing  on  their  minds  the 
number  of  the  besiegers: — 

The  chariots  shall  rage  in  the  streets.^^ 

Figures  of  Contiguity 

hyperbole 

Again  the  Prophet  seeks  to  discourage  the  Nin- 
evites  and  make  their  overthrow  imminent.  This 
time,  however,  he  uses  hyperbole : — 

And  there  is  none  end  of  their  corpses.^^ 

Figures  of  Contrast 
interrogation 

To  impress  the  severity  of  Jehovah  the  strik- 
ing interrogation  is  used: — 

Who  can  stand  before  his  indignation  ? 

And  who  can  abide  in  the  fierceness  of  his  anger  ?  ^* 

The  style  of  Nahum  is  narrow  and  pointed.  He 
feels  deeply  that  Nineveh  must  be  overthrown. 
This  thought  he  seeks  to  have  not  only  the  Nin- 
evites  but  everybody  else  believe. 

"^'Nah.  11:4.  ^'Nah.  111:3.  "Nah.  1:6. 


CHAPTER  IX 

HABAKKUK,    ZEPHANIAH,     HAGGAI,    ZECHARIAH, 

MALACHI 

Habakkuk 

HABAKKUK  prophesied  about  600  B.  C. 
He  marks  the  beginning  of  a  new  school 
of  religion  in  Israel.  Other  Prophets  addressed 
Israel  on  behalf  of  God;  he  speaks  to  God  on 
behalf  of  Israel.  They  were  so  exercised  over 
Israel's  sin  they  pronounced  dooms  and  pro- 
claimed an  offer  of  Grace. ^  Habakkuk  wanted 
to  know  why  God  permitted  tyranny  and  wrong. 
He  apparently  failed  to  see  that  He  could  bring 
good  out  of  evil.  The  earlier  Prophets  attack 
sin  while  he  deals  with  life.  They  are  negative 
while  he  is  positive.  The  distinctive  teaching  of 
the  book  is  "the  just  shall  live  by  his  faith"  (Ch. 

11:4). 

Habakkuk's  motto  seems  to  have  been,  "Not 
how  much  but  how  well."  This  noble,  daring 
spirit  proved  himself  a  master  of  everything  he 

^  See  G.  a.  Smith,  Expositors  Bible,  "Minor  Prophets,"  Vol. 
II,  p.  130. 

146 


Hahakkuk — Malachi  147 

touched.  When  he  cries  to  God,  the  Almighty 
answers  in  no  uncertain  manner.  His  command 
of  language  is  excellent.  Both  his  thought  and 
expression  are  poetic. 

His  style  is  the  embodiment  of  boldness,  sub- 
limity and  majesty.  Here  we  find  some  of  the 
finest  parallelisms.  "It  is  impossible  in  transla- 
tion to  reproduce  the  abounding  alliterations  of 
the  original  or  the  prevailing  poetic  measure  con- 
sisting of  three  principal  words  in  a  line."  ^  There 
is  also  the  dramatic  element  in  the  questioning 
and  complaining  of  man  and  the  threatening  an- 
swers of  God. 

Some  have  held  that  from  a  literary  point  of 
view  Habakkuk  was  dependent  on  Isaiah  and  had 
a  close  affinity  with  him.^  Others  maintain  that 
his  words  are  rare  and  original  and  that  he  is 
independent  of  earlier  models.*  Probably  the 
poetic  soul  of  the  man  fed  on  and  assimilated 
everything  good  that  he  could  find.  Hence  when 
he  wrote  his  style  was  rich  and  elegant. 

Figures 

A  man  of  Habakkuk's  temperament  could  not 
be  unpoetic  if  he  would.  Words  and  imagery  in 
his  soul  struggle  for  utterance.     His  work  is  to 

^W.  H.  Ward,  International  Critical  Commentary,  p.  5  S. 

'Ency.  Biblica,  Vol.  II,  Art.     "Habakkuk." 

*  Schaff-Herzog  Ency.  of  Religious  Knowledge,  Vol.  V. 


148        Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

choose  the  best.  Chronology,  geography  and  na- 
ture are  all  placed  under  tribute  to  serve  his  lofty 
purpose. 

Figures  of  Resemblance 

SIMILE 

The  first  simile  reminds  us  of  Jeremiah  who 
prefers  the  eagle  in  figures  of  comparison: — 

They  shall  fly  as  the  eagle  that  hasteth  to  eat.® 

To  show  the  seeming  helplessness  of  the  people 
and  to  strengthen  his  remonstrance  in  their  behalf, 
he  compares  them  to  fish : — 

And  makest  man  as  the  fishes  of  the  sea.^ 

A  vigorous  and  expressive  simile  is : — 

Who  enlargeth  his  desire  as  hell, 

And  is  as  death  and  cannot  be  satisfied.'^ 

As  we  progress  in  the  book  the  figures  become 
richer : — 

And  his  brightness  was  as  the  light.^ 

To  show  his  confidence  in  God,  how  He  will 
make  His  people  superior  to  their  enemies,  he 
uses  the  figure: — 

And  he  will  make  my  feet  like  hinds'  feet.^ 

■Hab.  1:8.  'Hab.  11:5.  »Hab.  Illrip. 

•Hab.  I:i4.  'Hab.  Ill -4. 


Hahakkuk — Malachi  149 

METAPHOR 

A  choice  metaphor  that  shows  the  writer's  ac- 
quaintance with  the  Psalms  is : — 

The  Lord  God  is  my  strength.^® 
PERSONIFICATION 

Hahakkuk  excels  in  personification.  To  show 
the  horror  and  wrong  of  the  Chaldean's  oppres- 
sion he  pictures  inanimate  things  as  crying  out: — 

For  the  stone  shall  cry  out  of  the  wall, 

And  the  beam  out  of  the  timber  shall  answer  it.^^ 

No  more  beautiful  imagery  can  be  found 
than : — 

The  perpetual  hills  did  bow.^^ 

It  is  figures  like  the  following  that  cause  De- 
litzsch  to  say  concerning  the  entire  Prophecy,  *'It 
is  classical  throughout,  full  of  rare  and  select 
words  and  turns,  which  are  to  some  extent  exclu- 
sively his  own,  whilst  his  view  and  mode  of  pres- 
entation bear  the  seal  of  independent  force  and 
finished  beauty.  Notwithstanding  the  violent  rush 
and  lofty  soaring  of  his  thoughts  his  Prophecy 
forms  a  finely  organized  and  artistically  rounded 
whole."  13 

"Hab.  III:t9.  "  Hab.  II:ii.  "  Hab.  111:6. 

"Lange's  Commentary,  "Minor  Prophets,"  p.  3. 


150        Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

The  mountains  saw  thee,  and  they  trembled: 
The  overflowing  of  the  water  passed  by: 
The  deep  uttered  his  voice, 
And  lifted  up  his  hands  on  high.^* 

Figures  of  Contiguity 
metonymy 

In  "transgresseth  by  wine"  (Ch.  11:5),  ^^^ 
"buildeth  a  town  with  blood"  (Ch.  II:i2),  the 
writer  shows  his  command  of  metonymy. 

Figures  of  Contrast 

EPIGRAM 

A  complete  study  of  Habakkuk's  style  cannot 
be  made  without  referring  to  epigram.  Two 
illustrations  of  this  have  become  proverbs;  the 
one  secular,  the  other  religious : — 

That  he  may  run  that  readeth  it.^^ 
But  the  just  shall  live  by  his  faith.^® 

This  book  is  as  fine  in  diction  and  style  as  any 
of  the  other  Prophecies.  The  final  ode  will  not 
suffer  by  comparison  with  the  best  Psalms. 

Zephaniah 

Zephaniah  came  of  royal  blood  but  did  not  In- 
herit excellent  literary  ability.     Other  Prophets 

"Hab.  III:io.  "  Hab.  11:2.  "Hab.  11:4. 


Hahakkuk — Malachi  151 

are  noticeable  for  some  great  outstanding  quality. 
Zephanlah  possesses  neither  a  great  imagination 
nor  a  consuming  love  for  humanity.^"^ 

He  was  the  legitimate  successor  of  Amos,  Ho- 
sea  and  Isaiah.  They  had  plead,  but  now  the 
evil  must  be  separated  from  the  good,  and 
Zephaniah,  by  his  insistence  on  "The  Day  of  the 
Lord,"  did  his  part  fully.  George  Adam  Smith 
places  him  and  his  message  In  an  odious  light. 
He  says,  ^^  "There  Is  no  hotter  book  in  the  Old 
Testament;  neither  dew  nor  grass  nor  tree  lives 
in  it,  but  It  is  everywhere  fire,  smoke  and  dark- 
ness, drifting  chaff,  ruins,  nettles,  salt-pits  and 
owl  and  ravens  looking  from  windows  of  desolate 
palaces." 

His  Prophecy  is  deserving  of  credit  for  the  fol- 
lowing reasons :  ( i )  It  gives  a  good  statement 
of  the  social  conditions  in  the  years  preceding  the 
exile.  (2)  It  is  pervaded  by  a  distinct  and  pro- 
found ethical  and  moral  tone;  (3)  He  is  among 
the  first  to  announce  a  universal  judgment. 

There  Is  disagreement  as  to  the  value  of  his 
style.  Hastings  says^^  that  "on  the  whole  it  Is 
clear  and  forceful  with  several  striking  figures." 
Another  writer  claims  that  his  work  is  largely  bor- 


"  See  S.  R.  Driver's  New  Century  Bible,  "Minor  Prophets," 
p.  104  ff. 
'*G.  A.  Smith,  Expositors  Bible,  "Minor  Prophets,"  Vol.  II, 

p.  48. 

"  Hastings'  Bible  Dictionary,  p.  976. 


152        Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

rowed.^^  There  are,  however,  remarkable  passages 
in  his  Prophecy,  e.g. :  "I  will  search  Jerusalem  with 
candles"  (Ch.  1 112).  The  description  of  the  day 
of  the  Lord  has  also  appealed  to  many  people : — 

That  day  is  a  day  of  wrath, 
A  day  of  trouble  and  distress, 
A  day  of  wasteness  and  desolation, 
A  day  of  darkness  and  gloominess, 
A  day  of  clouds  and  thick  darkness, 
A  day  of  the  trumpet  and  alarm 
Against  the  fenced  cities,  and  against  the  high 
towers.^^ 


Figures 

METAPHOR 

Chapter  III:ii-i3  has  been  regarded  as  very 
beautiful,  also  the  closing  passage,  Chapter  III: 
14-20.    A  significant  metaphor  is: — 

Her  princes  within  her  are  roaring  lions; 
Her  judges  are  evening  wolves.^^ 

If  Zephaniah  had  been  positive  rather  than 
negative,  humble  instead  of  austere,  his  useful- 
ness would  have  been  greatly  augmented.  As  it 
is,  he  faithfully  warned  a  thoughtless  people  and 
brought  to  the  notice  of  the  world  for  all  time  the 
idea  of  a  universal  judgment. 

•*Ency.  Biblica,  Vol.  II.       ^  Zeph.  1:15-16.         =^Zeph.  111:3. 


Habakkuk — Malachi  153 

Haggai 

Born  In  Babylon  In  the  time  of  the  Captivity, 
Haggai  was  the  first  to  prophesy  after  the  Re- 
turn.^^  He  was  the  man  of  the  hour  because  he 
stood  for  the  performance  of  duty  rather  than 
the  attainment  of  fame.  He  was  a  success  In  that 
he  saw  the  accomplishment  of  what  he  under- 
took. Unless  the  temple  had  been  rebuilt  the 
continuity  of  the  religion  of  Israel  could  not  have 
been  maintained.  Haggai  saw  this  and  acted 
accordingly.  His  command  to  rebuild  moved  the 
hearts  of  the  people  and  they  put  their  convictions 
Into  action. 

The  rebuilding  of  the  temple  Is  the  burden  of 
his  Prophecy.  He  announces,  however,  the  great 
ethical  principle  that  evil  is  more  infectious  than 
holiness,  and  in  his  final  prediction  foreshadows 
the  establishment  of  the  Messianic  Kingdom. 

The  style  of  Haggai  does  not  compare  favor- 
ably with  that  of  the  other  Prophets.  Some  have 
excused  its  dullness  by  maintaining  that  his  mes- 
sages, as  we  have  them,  are  only  the  outlines  of 
original  utterances  which  have  not  been  revised 
by  some  later  scholar.  There  are  a  few  telling 
passages: — 

Ye  have  sown  much,  and  bring  in  little; 
Ye  eat,  but  ye  have  not  enough; 

"  See  Ency.  Americana,  Vol.  VIII. 


154        Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

Ye  drink,  but  ye  are  not  filled  with  drink ; 
Ye  clothe  you,  but  there  is  none  warm; 
And  he  that  earneth  wages,  earneth  wages  to  put 
it  into  a  bag  with  holes.^* 

As  a  whole,  the  style  of  Haggai  is  prosaic.  It 
may  be  characterized  as  weak  in  expression  with 
too  frequent  repetitions.  He  lacked  imagination 
and  poetical  power. 

Figures 

Few  figures  of  speech  are  found  in  his  message. 
He  is  partial  to  interrogation  and  seeks  to  give 
energy  to  his  addresses  by  this  figure  chiefly. 

SIMILE 

The  signet-ring  among  the  Orientals  signified 
value.  Hence  the  following  simile  has  a  special 
meaning: — 


25 


And  will  make  thee  as  a  signet. 


METONYMY 

Metonymy  is  found  in  Chapter  11:21 : — 
I  will  shake  the  heavens  and  the  earth. 

Some  have  thought  that  this  figure  points  to 
the  coming  of  the  Messiah  and  the  establishment 

^Haggai,  1:6.  ''Hag.  11:23. 


Hahakkuk — Malachi  155 

of  His  kingdom.  Great  agitation  accompanied 
the  giving  of  the  law  on  Sinai  and  the  sending  of 
the  plagues  to  the  Egyptians.  The  next  "shak- 
ing" will  occur  during  the  reign  of  the  Messiah 
under  the  spiritual  dispensation. 

INTERROGATION 

Hoping  to  stir  the  pride  of  the  people  with 
regard  to  the  house  of  worship  Haggai  breaks 
forth  in  the  following  interrogation: — 

Is  it  time  for  you,  O  ye,  to  dwell  in  your  ceiled  houses, 
And  this  house  lie  waste  ?  ^^ 

As  if  he  had  seen  the  first  temple, ^^  he  says : — 

Who  is  left  among  you  that  saw  this  house  in  her  first 

glory? 
And  how  do  ye  see  it  now? 
Is  it  not  in  your  eyes  in  comparison  of  it  as  nothing  ?  ^® 

A  brief  but  suggestive  interrogation  is  found 
in  Chapter  II:  19.  As  an  incentive  to  work  Hag- 
gai promises  material  prosperity: — 

Is  the  seed  yet  in  the  barn? 

Yea,  as  yet  the  vine,  and  the  fig-tree,  and  the  pomegranate, 

and  the  olive  tree,  have  not  brought  forth : 
From  this  day  will  I  bless  you. 

'''Hag.  1:4. 

^  Ewald  infers  from  Chapter  II 13  that  he  had  seen  the  first 
temple.  **  Hag.  11:3. 


156        Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

Haggai  aimed  at  results  and  obtained  them. 
Simple  and  plain  speech  accomplished  his  pur- 
poses. That  was  all  he  wished.  He,  with  Zech- 
ariah,  realized  that  the  coming  of  the  Lord  was 
soon  to  take  place.  He  sought  to  keep  this  ex- 
pectation before  the  people. 

Zechariah 

Zechariah  was  a  man  of  influence  and  a  leader 
of  the  people  and  a  true  Prophet.  Simple  and 
practical  in  his  life,  he  cared  nothing  for  the  repu- 
tation of  originality  but  was  anxious  about  his 
reception  as  a  Prophet. 

In  conjunction  with  Haggai  he  played  an  im- 
portant part  in  reviving  the  faith  of  the  discour- 
aged remnant  of  God's  people.  They  not  only 
succeeded  in  getting  the  temple  rebuilt,  but  also 
had  an  important  place  in  beginning  its  liturgical 
services.  Two  characteristics  of  the  Prophecy  are 
visions  ^^  and  angelology.^^ 

Zechariah  gives  a  large  place  to  the  Spirit  and 
His  work.  The  Golden  Age  will  come  when  man 
cooperates  with  God  by  obeying  the  promptings  of 
the  Spirit. 

**  Moulton  says,  "The  seven  fold  vision  of  Zechariah  is  be- 
yond any  Prophecy  of  the  Old  Testament  in  the  demand  it 
makes  upon  the  imaginative  powers."  "Short  Introduction  to 
Literature  of  Bible,"  p.  308.     (1901.) 

^The  belief  in  Angels  received  a  decided  impetus  during 
the  exile.    Zechariah  introduces  orders  and  ranks  among  them. 


Hahakkuk — Malachi  157 

There  is  such  a  marked  difference  in  style  be- 
tween the  first  eight  chapters  and  the  remainder 
of  the  book  that  many  critics  hold  that  at  least 
two  men  must  have  written  it.  In  general,  it  may 
be  said  that  the  visions  contain  the  prose,  and 
the  Prophecy  the  poetry  of  the  book.  The  style 
of  the  first  division  shows  individuality,  unity  and 
sequence.  These  chapters  "are  made  up  of  three 
Prophecies.  The  first  is  a  general  manifesto  of 
this  Prophet's  message.  The  third  is  an  elab- 
orate response  to  a  formal  inquiry  on  the  sub- 
ject of  fast  days.  Between  these  is  found  a 
Prophetic  composition  of  great  literary  impor- 
tance." ^^  That  of  the  second  division  is  more 
direct,  purer,  softer  and  richer.  Chapters  IX-XI 
contain  as  fine  passages  as  are  found  in  Hebrew 
poetry.  The  apocalyptic  style  which  has  been 
noticed  in  Daniel  was  a  favorite  with  Zechariah. 
This  may  be  a  reason  why  his  style  is  considered 
involved  and  redundant  and  why  Lowth  says  of 
Zechariah,  'Vho  of  all  is  perhaps  the  most  ob- 
scure." 

Figures 

There  is  a  variety  and  richness  of  imagery 
found  here  as  the  figures  will  indicate.  To  show 
that  mere  wordly  wisdom  is  ineffectual,  the 
Prophet  says: — 

*^  Moulton's  "Short  Introduction  to  Literature  of  Bible,"  p.  308. 


158        Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 
Figures  of  Resemblance 

SIMILE 

And  Tyrus  did  build  herself  a  stronghold, 

And  heaped  up  silver  as  the  dust, 

And  fine  gold  as  the  mire  of  the  streets.^^ 

To  suggest  the  unbounded  success  of  God's 
people,  Zechariah  uses  another  effective  simile: — 

And  they  shall  drink  and  make  a  noise  as  through  wine; 
And  they  shall  be  filled  like  bowls,  and  as  the  corners  of 
the  altar.^^ 

To  continue  the  idea  of  God's  care  and  bless- 
ing, the  Prophet  says: — 

And  the  Lord,  their  God,  shall  save  them  in  that  day  as 

the  flock  of  his  people : 
For  they  shall  be  as  the  stones  of  a  crown,  lifted  up  as  an 

ensign  upon  his  land.^* 

To  Indicate  the  coming  power  of  Judah  and  to 
show  how  easy  and  complete  shall  be  her  vic- 
tories, we  have  another  simile : — 

In  that  day  will  I  make  the  governors  of  Judah  like  a 

hearth  of  fire  among  the  wood, 
And  like  a  torch  of  fire  in  a  sheaf.^^ 


"Zech.  IX  :3.  '' Zech.  IX:i5.  '*Zech.  IX:i6. 

"  Zech.  XII  :6. 


Hahakkuk — Malachi  159 

A   beautiful   simile    showing   what   tribulation 
does  for  Christians  is : — 

And  I  will  bring  the  third  part  through  the  fire, 
And  will  refine  them  as  silver  is  refined, 
And  will  try  them  as  gold  is  tried. ^^ 


METAPHOR 

A  suggestive  metaphor  indicating  how  com- 
pletely and  carefully  God  will  protect  Jerusalem 
and  how  He  will  manifest  His  glory  in  her  is : — 

For  I,  saith  the  Lord,  will  be  unto  her  a  wall  of  fire  round 

about. 
And  will  be  the  glory  in  the  midst  of  her.^^ 

PERSONIFICATION 

Zecharlah  is  particularly  felicitous  in  his  use  of 
personification.  It  adds  greatly  to  the  energy  of 
his  style.  To  indicate  the  self-satisfied  condition 
of  Jerusalem  the  Prophet  says : — 

We  have  walked  to  and  fro  through  the  earth,  and,  be- 
hold all  the  earth  sitteth  still  and  is  at  rest.^^ 

Although  the  Israelites  are  restored  to  their 
own  land  they  are  not  free  from  trouble.  Evil 
shepherds  cause  them  to  be  threatened  with  judg- 

«« Zech.  XIII  :9.  "  Zech.  II 15.  ^  Zech.  I  :i  i. 


i6o        Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

merits.     If  the  trees  wail  the  Impending  calamity 
must  be  terrible : — 

Howl,  fir  tree;  for  the  cedar  is  fallen;  because  all  the 

mighty  are  spoiled : 
Howl,  O  ye  oaks  of  Bashan ;  for  the  forest  of  the  vintage 

is  come  down.^^ 

Figures  of  Contiguity 

synecdoche 

God  is  such  a  good  protector  that  even  the 
Israelites  in  tents  shall  be  saved.  God's  love  is 
unchangeable  for  all  who  trust  in  Him.  The 
following  synecdoche  declares  this : — 

The  Lord  also  shall  save  the  tents  of  Judah  first.*^ 

In  the  "mourning  of  the  land"  we  have  a  figure 
often  used  by  the  other  Prophets.  In  this  per- 
sonification and  synecdoches  are  included. 

METONYMY 

Zechariah's  first  vision  is  one  of  encouragement. 
Zion  was  comforted  by  the  rebuilding  of  the  tem"- 
ple.    The  metonymy  is  apt  and  appropriate : — 

And  the  Lord  shall  yet  comfort  Zion 
And  shall  yet  choose  Jerusalem.*^ 

'"Zech.    XI  :2.  *"Zech.   XII 7.  "Zech.    1:17. 


Hahakkuk — Malachi  l6i 

The  chastisement  of  the  heathen  (represented 
by  Philistia)  is  prophesied  in  the  next  me- 
tonymy : — 

And  I  will  take  away  his  blood  out  of  his  mouth, 
And  his  abominations  from  between  his  teeth.*^ 

An  oft-quoted  figure  is  the  next.  It  looks  back 
to  the  Levitical  law  (see  Numbers  VIII  :7  and 
XIX 19)  and  forward  to  the  efficacy  of  the  blood 
of  Christ  (see  i  John  1:7). 

No  better  cause  for  shouting  can  be  found  than 
the  one  suggested  in  the  following  figure.  With 
keen  Prophetic  vision  Zechariah  sees  the  open- 
ing events  of  the  week  in  which  Christ  was  cruci- 
fied. The  import  of  his  message  is  also  suggested. 
This  is  another  instance  in  which  exclamation  and 
metonymy  are  mixed: — 

Rejoice  greatly,  O  daughter  of  Zion; 
Shout  O  daughter  of  Jerusalem: 
He  is  just  and  having  salvation; 
Lowly,  and  riding  upon  an  ass. 
And  upon  a  colt  the  foal  of  an  ass.*^ 

One  peculiarity  of  the  Book  of  Zechariah  is 
the  style  of  direct  address.  Another  is  his  pre- 
diction of  the  sanctification  of  Israel  through  the 
outpouring  of  the  Spirit.  (Ch.  111:4,  VI  :6,  V:5- 
II,  VIII:i6.i7.)^* 

*'Zech.  1X7.  ^'Zech.  IX  rg. 

**See  Ottley,  "Hebrew  Poets,"  p.  83  ff. 


1 62        Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

Malachi 

Because  the  word  Malachi  means  ''my  angel  or 
messenger"  many  have  concluded  that  no  such 
man  ever  lived,  but  that  the  book  was  written  by 
Ezra.^^  Notwithstanding  this,  we  have  the  book 
in  the  Scripture  Canon  written  about  420  B.  C. 
We  judge  from  its  contents  that  the  writer  had 
an  important  mission  which  was  well  discharged. 
Though  he  was  with  the  minority  he  spoke  out 
faithfully  against  sins  both  of  omission  and  com- 
mission. The  earlier  Prophets  had  denounced 
the  wicked  because  of  their  sinfulness;  the  writer 
of  Malachi  denounces  not  only  this  class  but  also 
the  pious  because  of  their  forgetfulness.  He 
maintains  that  God  is  worshiped  even  among  the 
heathen  and  that  the  reason  His  people  are  not 
blessed  is  that  they  do  not  put  away  their  abuses 
and  pay  their  religious  dues.^^ 

Malachi,  with  the  other  post-exilian  Prophets, 
emphasizes  the  ritual  in  worship.  He  insists, 
however,  on  the  spirit  of  reverence  and  worship. 
With  true  Prophetic  instinct  he  peers  into  the 
future  and  mirrors  with  wonderful  clearness  the 
coming  of  Christ  and  His  forerunner  (see  Ch. 
III:i-4). 

*"  S.  R.  Driver,  New  Century  Bible,  p.  297 ;   also  Expositors 
Bible,  Vol.  II,  p.  334. 

**See  J.  A.  Smitti  Expositors  Bible,  p.  338,  Vol.  II. 


Hahakkuk — Malachi  163 

The  style  of  the  book  has  been  adversely  crit- 
icized.^^ While  it  is  not  the  finest  poetry,  it  has 
purity,  earnestness  and  originality  that  command 
respect.  He  makes  his  point  through  logic  rather 
than  by  appealing  to  the  emotions.  His  sentences 
are  so  compact  that  in  a  small  compass  we  have 
a  comprehensive  view  of  contemporary  religious 
conditions. 

Other  writers  have  been  termed  obscure,  but 
that  charge  cannot  justly  be  laid  to  this  writer. 
He  not  only  answers  the  objections  of  his  op- 
ponents in  an  orderly  and  direct  manner,  but  even 
raises  supposed  objections  which  he  proceeds  to 
refute.  Because  of  the  changes  in  civilization 
and  in  the  attitude  toward  religious  questions,  the 
writer  of  Malachi  could  not  employ  the  literary 
methods  of  Isaiah  or  Ezekiel.  He  must  be  a 
teacher.  We  have  noted  an  apocalyptic  trend  in 
the  Prophecies  of  Daniel  and  Zechariah;  here, 
however,  is  a  resemblance  to  the  scholastics  of 
the  Middle  Ages.  "Some  see  in  it  (his  style)  the 
beginning  of  the  method  of  exposition  which 
afterwards  became  universal  in  the  schools  and 
synagogues   of  Judaism."  ^^ 

"  Lowth  says,  "Malachi  is  written  in  a  mediocre  style." 
Gesenius  regards  him  "decidedly  inferior  to  the  earlier  writ- 
ers." Kohler  on  the  other  hand  considers  his  style  "forcible, 
and  remarkably  pure  for  the  time."  Ewald  says  "it  is  not 
lacking  in  smoothness  and  elegance."  (J.  P.  Lange,  Minor 
Prophets,  Vol.  XIV,  p.  4,  "Malachi.") 

*®  Hastings'  Bible  Dictionary,  p.  218. 


164        Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

Figures 

Malachi  Is  not  strong  in  the  use  of  imagery. 
He  employs  enough,  however,  to  indicate  a  many- 
sided  literary  ability. 

Figures  of  Resemblance 

SIMILE 

He  indicates  the  refining  and  purifying  charac- 
teristics of  the  coming  Messiah  by  the  use  of  the 
following  effective   simile: — 

For  he  is  like  a  refiner's  fire,  and  like  fullers'  sope; 
And  he  shall  sit  as  a  refiner  and  purifier  of  silver.*^ 

Malachi  has  a  vivid  conception  of  the  judg- 
ment— the  time  when  the  evil  shall  be  perma- 
nently separated  from  the  good — the  former  de- 
stroyed, while  the  latter  shall  prosper.  In  sup- 
port of  that  belief  he  says: — 

For,  behold,  the  day  cometh,  that  shall  burn  as  an  oven; 
And  all  the  proud,  yea,  all  that  do  wickedly  shall  be 
stubble.^^ 

The  same  idea  is  continued  in  the  following 
verse : — 

But  unto  you  that  fear  my  name  shall  the  Sun  of  right- 
eousness arise 
With  healing  in  his  wings ; 
And  he  shall  go  forth,  and  grow  up  as  calves  of  the  stall.^^ 

*'Mal.  111:2-3.  ""Mai.  IV :i.  "Mai.  IV :2. 


Hahakkuk — Malachi  165 

METAPHOR 

The  idea  which  is  couched  in  simile  in  the  fore- 
going excerpt  is  in  the  same  verses  and  the  fol- 
lowing expressed  in  metaphor: — 

All  the  proud,  yea  and   all  that  do   wickedly  shall  be 

stubble.^^ 
And  ye  shall  tread  down  the  wicked; 
For  they  shall  be  ashes  under  the  soles  of  your  feet.°^ 

Figures  of  Contiguity 

metonymy 

A  reassuring  promise  and  oft-quoted  metonymy 
is: — 

Bring  ye  all  the  tithes  into  the  storehouse, 
And  prove  me  now  herewith,  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts, 
If  I  will  not  open  you  the  windows  of  heaven, 
And  pour  you  out  a  blessing,  that  there  shall  not  be  room 
enough  to  receive  it.^* 

A  very  comforting  promise  is  made  to  God's 
faithful  children.  This  also  is  in  the  form  of 
metonymy. 

And  they  shall  be  mine,  saith  the  Lord  of  Hosts, 
In  that  day  when  I  make  up  my  jewels.^^ 

"'  Mai.  IV  :i.  "  Mai.  IV  :3.  "  Mai.  Ill  :io. 

"Mai.  111:17. 


1 66        Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

Figures  of  Contrast 
interrogation 

Malachi's  favorite  figure  is  pointed  interroga- 
tion.    Observe  the  following: — 

If  then  I  be  a  father,  where  is  mine  honour?  ^^ 

And  if  ye  offer  the  blind  for  sacrifice,  is  it  not  evil? 

And  if  ye  offer  the  lame  and  sick  is  it  not  evil?  ^^ 

Have  we  not  all  one  father? 

Hath  not  one  God  created  us?  ^* 

But  who  may  abide  the  day  of  his  coming? 

And  who  shall  stand  when  he  appeareth  ?  ^^ 

Will  a  man  rob  God?«° 

It  would  be  diflUcult  to  write  interrogations  hav- 
ing more  point  and  significance  than  these.  It 
would  also  be  difficult  to  find  a  book  in  the  Old 
Testament  of  the  size  of  Malachi,  having  a  style 
so  rich  and  so  diversified.  This  book  with  the 
Prophecy  of  Jonah  may  well  mark  the  transition 
between  the  Old  and  New  Testaments. 

"  Mai.  1 :6.  "  Mai.  1 :8.  ""  Mai.  II  :io. 

•^Mal.  111:2.  ""Mai.  111:8. 


CONCLUSION 

THE  truths  of  the  Bible  have  received  the 
prayerful  attention  of  the  devout  scholars 
of  every  age.  Because  of  various  linguistic  and 
hermeneutical  obstacles,  commentators  and  redac- 
tors have,  in  some  instances,  complicated  rather 
than  clarified  Biblical  truths.  Generally,  how- 
ever, their  supremely  devout  object  to  discover 
God's  thought  and  purposes  has  resulted  in  great 
benefit  to  the  race. 

Feeling  that  the  truths  they  were  chosen  to  in- 
terpret should  be  stated  in  an  attractive  form  they 
have  spared  no  pains  from  the  rhetorical  stand- 
point. On  the  other  hand,  realizing  that  the  weal 
or  woe  of  some  or  many  individuals  might  depend 
on  the  interpretation  of  a  single  word,  they  have 
striven  for  the  best  hermeneutical  standards.  Be- 
ing the  best  from  both  the  literary  and  religious 
viewpoints,  it  is  not  surprising  that  so  many  super- 
lative statements  have  been  made  concerning  the 
Book. 

The  magnificent  grandeur  and  stately,  sweep- 
ing progress  of  the  Pentateuch  is  replaced  in  the 
early  historical  books,  by  a  concrete  and  familiar 

167 


1 68        Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

handling  of  the  underlying  principles  of  human- 
ity's existence  and  progress.  During  the  process 
of  leading  His  chosen  people  and  developing  a 
Hebrew  nation,  God  is  the  embodiment  of  pa- 
tience. Often,  through  the  mouths  of  His  Proph- 
ets, He  threatens  and  forgives.  He  is  a  loving 
God  and  must  give  Israel  every  chance  to  repent. 

The  historical  books  are  followed  by  the  poet- 
ical. Here,  in  felicitous  periods,  the  heights  and 
depths  of  the  soul's  experiences  are  expressed. 
Truly,  "deep  calleth  unto  deep."  Great  advances 
are  made  in  showing  the  comprehensiveness  of 
God's  love.  There  is  no  sin  that  God  will  not 
forgive.  There  is  no  stain  that  He  will  not  wash 
away  when  proper  contrition  is  made.  In  these 
books  we  get  foretastes  of  truly  Christian  teach- 
ings. 

The  Prophecies,  in  some  respects  the  connect- 
ing link  between  what  precedes  them  and  the  New 
Testament,  contain  the  cream  of  all  that  precedes. 
From  this  time  forth  the  thoughts  of  the  people 
are  not  only  objective  but  subjective.  Having  eyes 
and  ears  alert  to  everything  that  would  assist  them 
in  their  important  work,  the  Prophets  browsed 
among  the  mighty  truths  of  the  Pentateuch  until 
they  were  saturated  with  its  spirit  and  teachings. 

Some  of  the  Prophets  proclaimed  a  universal 
salvation.  They  had  so  much  of  the  Spirit  of 
God  that  they  could  not  remain  narrow.     They 


Conclusion  169 

indicated  by  word  and  deed  that  they  longed  for 
the  realization  of  the  Christian  ideal.  When  God 
wished  to  have  large  religious  and  moral  concep- 
tions clothed  in  attractive  garb,  he  called  an 
Isaiah.  Jesus  Christ,  the  Consummation  of 
Prophecy,  came  when  the  thinking  and  praying 
people  of  the  world  realized  that  art,  culture  and 
philosophy  could  not  save  them.  To  prepare  for 
His  coming  there  must  be  the  work  and  sacrifices 
of  many  "John  the  Baptists."  The  Prophets  did 
to  a  large  degree  this  preparatory  work. 

It  is  remarkable  that  some  of  the  Prophecies 
expressed  the  idea  that  the  world  is  arranged  on 
a  plan  in  which  the  salvation  of  the  people  is  the 
main  feature.  Mighty  empires  totter  to  their 
downfall  and  haughty  kings  are  dethroned  because 
they  are  out  of  harmony  with  this  plan. 

If  some  of  the  Prophecies  are  difficult  to  com- 
prehend, that  is  another  argument  in  their  favor. 
The  Prophets  were  trying  to  lift  the  people  from 
a  condition  of  spiritual  infancy  to  one  of  spiritual 
manhood.  By  their  efforts  in  this  direction  they 
have  furnished  the  world  with  a  valuable  means 
of  intellectual  improvement.  The  most  helpful 
truths  of  life  do  not  lie  on  or  near  the  surface. 
The  effort  necessary  to  find  them  furnishes  the 
required  mental  exertion  for  healthy  intellectual 
growth. 


170        Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

We  read  In  one  place  ^  the  ease  with  which  the 
avenue  to  divine  truth  may  be  discovered  and  re- 
tained. This  statement  was  never  intended  to 
excuse  students  of  the  Bible  from  the  responsi- 
bility of  thinking,  searching  and  judging.  The 
Bible  is  not  designed  to  minister  to  the  lazy.  It 
does,  on  the  other  hand,  reward  painstaking 
study. 

God  might  have  devised  a  plan  to  give  man 
lumber  without  his  cutting  it,  ore  without  digging 
it,  crops  without  their  being  planted.  He  did  not 
do  this,  but  rather  planned  for  him  to  put  forth 
the  energy  necessary  for  his  own  development. 
The  law  of  labor  that  obtains  in  the  physical  uni- 
verse applies  with  equal  force  to  the  spiritual  and 
intellectual  realms.  The  Prophets  by  their  faith- 
ful and  self-sacrificing  labors  performed  not  only 
services  of  inestimable  value  to  their  own  people, 
but  also  taught  great  ethical  truths  and  furnished 
mental  and  spiritual  food  for  all  time. 

'Is.  XXXV :8. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

(3)  The  Holy  Bible.  An  exact  reprint  of  the  Author- 
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(2)  The  Prophets  of  Israel,  W.  Robertson  Smith.     D. 

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(3)  Representative  Men  of  the  Bible j  Geo.  Matheson. 

A.  C.  Armstrong,  1903. 

(i)  Old  Testament  Prophecy j  A.  B.  Davidson.  T.  & 
T.  Clark,  1903. 

(3)  An  Inquiry  into  the  Evidential  Value  of  Prophecy , 
A.  E.  Edghill.    Macmillan,  1904. 

{3)  Jesus  and  the  Prophets,  C.  S.  MacFarland.  Put- 
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(3)  Essays  on  the  Characteristics  and  Laws  of  Prophetic 
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(3)  Land  of  Israel,  R.  L.  Stewart.  Eaton  &  Mains, 
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C.  Scribner's  Sons,  1907. 

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ARTICLES  FROM  ENCYCLOPEDIAS 

(i)(4)  Encyclopedia  BiBLiCA 

Macmillan,  1901.     London,  A.  &  C.  Black. 


Bibliography  173 

Article,  'Trophetic  Literature." 

Articles  on:  "Amos,"  "Daniel,"  "Ezekiel,"  "Haggai," 
"Habakkuk,"  "Hosea,"  "Jonah,"  "Joel,"  "Jeremiah," 
"Malachi,"  "Nahum,"  "Obadiah,"  "Zechariah,"  "Zepha- 
niah." 

(i)(4)         International  Encyclopedia 
Dodd,  Mead  &  Co.,  1S98 
Articles   on:      "Amos,"    "Haggai,"    "Hosea,"    "Joel," 
"Malachi,"  "Micah,"  "Nahum,"  "Zechariah." 

(i)  (4)  Encyclopedia  Americana 

Americana  Co.,    1904 
Articles  on:     "Amos,"   "Hosea,"   "Daniel,"  "Isaiah," 
"Jeremiah,"    "Joel,"    "Zephaniah,"    "Haggai,"    "Habak- 
kuk,"  "Micah,"  "Nahum,"  "Obadiah,"  "Zechariah." 

(i)  (4)  Encyclopedia  Britannica 

Cambridge,  University  Press,   19 11.     nth  Edition. 
Article:     "Prophecy  and  the  Prophets." 

(i)(4)   Schaff-Herzog  Encyclopedia  of  Religious 

Knowledge 
Funk  &  Wagnalls,  1908 
Articles  on:     "Prophet,"  "Hebrew  Language  and  Lit- 
erature," "Ecstasy,"  "Amos,"  "Daniel,"  "Ezekiel,"  "Ha- 
bakkuk,"  "Haggai,"  "Hosea,"  "Joel,"  "Jonah,"  "Mala- 
chi," "Micah,"  "Nahum,"  "Obadiah,"  "Zechariah." 

(i)(4)  Hastings'  Bible  Dictionary 

Chas.  Scribner's  Sons,   1903 
Articles  on:     "Prophecy,"   "Amos,"   "Daniel,"   "Eze- 
kiel,"   "Habakkuk,"    "Isaiah,"    "Malachi,"    "Nahum," 
"Zephaniah." 

COMMENTARIES 

(5)  (3)  The  Pulpit  Commentary 

Kegan  Paul,  London,  1 887-1 893 


174        Literary  Style  of  the  Prophecies 

General  Editor:     Canon  H.  D.  M.  Spence,  M.A. 

Exposition  and  Homilies  by  various  scholars. 

"Amos,"  "Daniel,"  "Ezekiel,"  "Habakkuk,"  "Haggai," 
"Rosea,"  "Isaiah,"  "Jeremiah,"  "Joel,"  "Jonah,"  "Lam- 
entations," "Malachi,"  "Micah,"  "Nahum,"  "Obadiah," 
"Zechariah,"  "Zephaniah." 

(5)    HOLY  BIBLE  WITH  EXPLANATORY 
AND  CRITICAL  COMMENTARIES 
F.  C.  Cook 
J.  Murray,  London,  1876 
"Nahum,"  "Joel,"  "Jonah." 

(5)  OLD  TESTAMENT  COMMENTARIES 

Dutton  &  Co. 
"Daniel,"  J.   Deane;  "Hosea,"   H.   R.   Reynolds  and 
O.  C.  Whitehouse;  "Haggai,"  A.  C.  Jennings;  "Zech- 
araiah,"  W.  H.  Lowe. 

(5)  LANGE  COMMENTARY 

Chas.  Scribner's  Sons,  1901 
J.  P.  Lange,  translated  and  enlarged  by  Philip  Schaff  in 
connection  with  various  American  scholars 
"Isaiah,"  "Jeremiah,"  "Lamentations,"  "Ezekiel," 
"Hosea,"  "Joel,"  "Amos,"  "Jonah,"  "Micah,"  "Nahum," 
"Habakkuk,"  "Zephaniah,"  "Haggai,"  "Zechariah," 
"Malachi." 

(5)  (3)      INTERNATIONAL  CRITICAL 
COMMENTARY 

Scribners 
"Joel,"  "Habakkuk,"  J.  A.  Bewer;  "Obadiah,"  "Na- 
hum," W.  H.  Ward,   191 1;  "Micah,"  "Zephaniah,"  J. 
M.  P.  Smith;  "Amos,"  "Hosea,"  W.  R.  Harper,  1905. 

(5)  BIBLICAL  ILLUSTRATOR 

F.  H.  Revell 

Compiled  by  Joseph  S.  Exell 

"Isaiah,"   "Joel,"   "Amos,"   "Micah,"   "Habakkuk." 


Bibliography  175 

(i)  EXPOSITOR'S  BIBLE 

A.  C.  Armstrong,   1903 
"Judges,"    R.    A.    Watson;    "Ezekiel,"    J.    Skinner; 
"Minor  Prophets,"  G.  A.  Smith;  "Daniel,"  W.  F.  Far- 
rer;  "Isaiah,"  G.  A.  Smith. 

(5)  NEW  CENTURY  BIBLE 

Henry  Trowde,  N.  Y. 
"Jeremiah,"  A.  S.  Peake,  1910;  "Ezekiel,"  W.  F.  Loft- 
house,  1910;  "Hosea,"  "Joel,"  "Amos,"  "Obadiah,"  "Jo- 
nah," "Micah,"  R.  F.  Horton,  1904;  "Nahum,"  "Habak- 
kuk,"  "Zephaniah,"  "Haggai,"  "Zechariah,"  "Malachi," 
R.  S.  Driver,  1906. 

(5)  (3)  CAMBRIDGE  BIBLE 

Cambridge  University  Press 
"Jeremiah  and  Lamentations,"  A.  W.  Streane,  1881 ; 
"Daniel,"  R.  S.  Driver,  1900;  "Hosea,"  J.  K.  Cheyne; 
"Joel,"  "Amos,"  R.  S.  Driver,  1898;  "Haggai,"  "Oba- 
diah," "Jonah,"  T.  T.  Perowne,  1894;  "Nahum," 
"Habakkuk,"  "Zephaniah,"  A.  B.  Davidson,  1896. 

(5)  MODERN  READER'S  BIBLE 

Macmillan 
"Lamentations,"  "Ezekiel,"  R.  G.  Moulton,   1902. 

(5)       HAND  BOOK  FOR  BIBLE  CLASSES 
Clark,  Edinburgh 

"Haggai,"  "Zechariah,"  "Malachi,"  M.  Dods,  1879- 

(5)    "The  Book  of  Ezekiel,"  A.  B.  Davidson,  Univer- 
sity Press,  Cambridge,  1892. 

(5)   "The  Book  of  the  Prophet  Ezekiel,"  Whitehouse. 
Dent  &  Co.,  London,  1902. 

(5)   "The   Book   of    Nahum,"    Paul    Haupt.      Johns 
Hopkins  Press,  1907. 

(5)  (3)       THE   HEBREW   PROPHETS 

Potts  &  Co. 
"Amos,"  "Daniel,"  "Haggai,"  "Hosea,"  "Zechariah," 
R.  L.  Ottley,  1898. 


INDEX 


Abraham,  one  of  the  first 
Prophets,   15. 

Agitation,  deep  emotion  nec- 
essary to  produce  abiding 
literature,    46. 

Allegory,  similar  to  meta- 
phor, 64;  the  parabolic,  64; 
examples  of,  from  Isaiah, 
with  comments,  64-65;  ex- 
ample of,  from  Jeremiah, 
86-87;  examples  of,  from 
Ezekiel,  with  comments^ 
106-108. 

Amos,  marks  an  advance  in 
Prophetic  power  and  influ- 
ence, 23 ;  personal  right- 
eousness emphasized  by,  23  ; 
a  moral  teacher,  reformer 
and  Prophet,  127;  told 
plain  truth,  127;  first 
Prophet  to  commit  Proph- 
ecies to  writing,  127;  his 
style  terse,  graphic  and  vig- 
orous, 128;  has  a  grand 
striking  sublimity,  128;  his 
characteristics,  128;  uses 
original,  lofty  imagery, 
129;  had  a  message,  131; 
tenderness  did  not  affect 
style,    131. 

Ancestry,  influences  literary 
product,    9. 

Angelology,  dealt  with  in 
Prophecies  of  Daniel,    113. 

Antithesis,  defined,  71 ;  ex- 
ample of,  from  Isaiah,  71. 

Apocalyptic  style  favored  by 
Zechariah,   157. 


Apostrophe,  defined  and  dis- 
cussed, 70;  example  of, 
from  Isaiah,  70;  example 
of,  from  Micah,   141. 

Bacon,    10. 

Basis  of  work  of  O.  T.  Proph- 
ets were  bed-rock  princi- 
ples,   revealed   by   God,    9. 

Beowulf,   The,   42. 

Bewer,  J.  A.,  on  Joel,   124. 

Bible,  Truths  of,  sometimes 
complicated,  167;  not  de- 
signed to  minister  to  the 
lazy,   170. 

Blair,  H.,  on  the  metaphor, 
60;    on   personification,    62. 

Bowne,  B.  P.,  quoted,  on  the 
supernatural,   32. 

Budde,  quoted,  22. 

Captivity,  One  good  effect  of, 
II. 

Carmel,  Mount,  36. 

Cid,  The,  43. 

Christ,  Jesus,  the  consumma- 
tion of  Prophecy,   169. 

Clark,  J.  S.,  on  the  metaphor, 
60;  on  antithesis,  72. 

Conditions,  Various,  affect 
writings,   9;   political,   11. 

Consciousness,  The,  splitting 
of,  Prof.  James  on,  30. 

Consecration,  imperfect,  cause 
of  religious   excitation,   32. 

Contiguity,  Figures  of,  dis- 
cussed,  65. 


177 


178 


Index 


Contrast,  Figures  of,  dis- 
cussed, 70. 

Cornill,  on  Amos,   127. 

Cream  of  Old  Testament 
writings  in  the  Prophecies, 
i68. 

Curtiss,  S.  T.,  on  Ezekiel,  100. 

Davidson,  A.  B.,  quoted,  on 
"The  Mind  of  the  Proph- 
et," 27. 

Daniel,  The  book  of,  apocry- 
phal, m;  his  style  inferior 
to  other  Major  Prophets, 
112. 

Delitzsch  on   Habakkuk,   149. 

Difficulties,  in  the  Prophecies, 
a  means  of  growth,  169- 
170. 

Dream,  The,  a  condition  of 
receiving  truth,  30;  David- 
son, A.  B.,  on,   31. 

Driver,  S.  R.,  on  Isaiah's  lit- 
erary style,   53. 

Ecstasy  of  the  Prophets  to  be 
expected,  12;  not  necessary, 
however,  for  revelations 
from  God,  28;  cf.  Peter,  28. 

Environment  influences  liter- 
ary  product,    9. 

Epigram,  Example  of,  from 
Jeremiah,  90;  example  of, 
from  Ezekiel,  no;  exam- 
ple of,  from  Habakkuk,  150. 

Ewald  on  the  grandeur  of 
Isaiah's  writings,  52;  holds 
we  are  indebted  to  the  Cap- 
tivity for  some  fine  poetry, 
92;  on  Hosea's  style,  117. 

Exclamation,  discussed  and 
defined,  68 ;  examples  of, 
from  Isaiah,  with  com- 
ments, 68-69;  example  of, 
from  Lamentations,  96-97; 
example  of,  from  Ezekiel, 
115. 


Ezekiel,  Early  life  of,  99; 
prophesied  in  the  period  of 
transition,  99 ;  both  Prophet 
and  priest,  99 ;  a  potent  fac- 
tor in  the  development  of  a 
spiritual  Israel,  100;  em- 
phasized personal  religion, 
100;  a  student,  100;  had  a 
striking  personality  and 
polished  literary  style,  100 
and  in;  is  determined  yet 
sympathetic,  loi ;  style  fig- 
urative, loi ;  compared 
with  Dante  and  E.  A.  Poe, 
loi ;  his  task  disagreeable, 
102;  work  not  comprehend- 
ed, 102 ;  was  abnormal  and 
ecstatic,  102;  had  energ>-  of 
character,  103 ;  Prophecy 
has  rich  and  varied  vocab- 
ulary, 103  ;  rich  in  allegory, 
107. 

Faith  and  obedience  and  true 
success,  relation  between, 
seen  by  most  of  the  Proph- 
ets, II. 

Figures  of  speech,  suggestions 
for,  in  sky,  country  and 
pursuits  of  people,  9; 
caused  by  capacity  for  deep 
feeling  and  violent  agita- 
tion, 47;  the  eflFective  means 
of  the  Prophet,  48. 

Gardiner,  J.  H.,  quoted,  on 
the  volition  of  the  Prophet, 
28 ;  on  the  intensity  of  the 
Hebrew    nature,    34    (note). 

Geography,  course  in,  should 
precede  the  study  of  a  coun- 
try's literature,  9. 

Gilfillan,  G.,  quoted  on  near- 
ness of  God  to  Hebrew 
Prophet,  35;  on  the  recep- 
tion of  the  law  by  Moses  on 
Sinai,    38-39;    on   the   proof 


Index 


179 


of  great  thoughts,  47;  on 
the  sublimity  of  the  Proph- 
ecies of  Isaiah,  52. 
God,  walking  closely  with, 
kept  Prophet  at  his  great 
task,  15;  his  plan  seen  for 
spreading  personal  right- 
eousness, 24;  prepares  per- 
sonalities for  doing  Pro- 
phetic work,  30;  effect  of 
sense  of  immediate  pres- 
ence, on  Prophets,  35. 

Habakkuk  marks  beginning  of 
a  new  school  of  religion  in 
Israel,  146 ;  didn't  see  how 
God  could  bring  good  out 
of  evil,  146;  his  motto  "Not 
how  much  but  how  well," 
146 ;  style  is  bold,  sublime 
and  majestic,  147;  assimi- 
lated everything  good,  147; 
placed  chronology,  geogra- 
phy and  nature  under  trib- 
ute,   148. 

Haggai  emphasized  the  re- 
building of  the  temple,  153; 
foreshadows  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Messianic 
Kingdom,  153;  Prophecy 
contains  few  telling  pas- 
sages, 153 ;  his  style  prosa- 
ic, 154;  aimed  at  and  ob- 
tained results,   156. 

Haven,  describes  hyperbole, 
69. 

Hebrew,  nature.  The,  narrow 
but  intense,  46 ;  aspirations 
and  emotions  not  too  ex- 
tensive, 46. 

Hebrews  susceptible  to  cli- 
mate and  scenery,  35;  an 
agricultural  and  nomadic 
race,  36;  with  them  menial 
tasks  do  not  degrade,  36; 
had  leisure  for  meditation, 
36 ;  thoroughly  stirred  by  ex- 


traordinary occurrences,  36; 
e.  g.  the  flood,  37;  imagina- 
tion moved  by  solemnity  of 
the  temple,  37;  moved  by 
story  of  Creation,  37; 
moved  by  story  of  destruction 
of  Sodom,  38;  language  one 
of  vigor  and  energy,  41 ; 
not  dramatic,  42;  were  re- 
ligious, 41 ;  poetry  of,  es- 
sentially lyric,  42 ;  charac- 
ter of,  the  key  to  their 
writings,  48. 

Herder,  J.  G.,  on  "Spirit  of 
Hebrew  Poetry,"  41 ;  on 
parallelism,  43 ;  on  Ezekiel, 
102. 

Homes,  making  more  impor- 
tant to  early  Americans 
than    literature,    10. 

Hosea,  early  life,  116;  sug- 
gests doctrines  developed 
by  later  Prophets,  116; 
style  laconic,  116;  has  un- 
usual style,  117;  has  deep 
emotionalism  and  fatherly 
yearning,  117;  very  consci- 
entious, 117;  observes  both 
law  and  gospel,  117;  is  just 
as  well  as  tender,  118;  sim- 
ilar to  Jeremiah,  118;  used 
many  figures,   118. 

Hugo,  Victor,  on  Ezekiel,  102. 

Hyperbole,  defined,  69;  few 
figures  of,  in  Hebrew  writ- 
ings, 69;  example  of,  from 
Isaiah,  70;  example  of,  from 
Lamentations,  97;  example 
of,  from  Daniel,  115;  exam- 
ple of,  from  Nahum,  145. 

Ideas  vivified  by  river,  lake, 
mountain,  forest,  threshing 
floor,  stable,  9;  valuable,  of 
Prophets,  written  under 
mental  and  spiritual  pres- 
sure,   33. 


i8o 


Index 


Idiosyncrasies,  should  be  a 
large  place  for  personal,  in 
the  make-up  of  the  Proph- 
ets,  32. 

Individuality,  Idea  of,  promi- 
nent in  later  Prophetic 
writings  and  in  Christ's  ut- 
terances, II. 

Interpretation,  In  Biblical, 
scholars  have  used  best 
standards,   167. 

Interrogation,  discussed,  72 ; 
examples  of,  from  Isaiah, 
with  comments,  72-74;  ex- 
amples of,  from  Jeremiah, 
with  comments,  90;  ex- 
amples of,  from  Lamenta- 
tions, with  comments,  97- 
98 ;  example  of,  from  Eze- 
kiel,  iii;  example  of,  from 
Hosea,  122;  example  of, 
from  Amos,  with  comments, 
130-131;  example  of,  from 
Obadiah,  133;  example  of, 
from  Micah,  141 ;  example 
of,  from  Nahum,  145 ;  ex- 
amples of,  from  Haggai, 
155;  example  of,  from  Mal- 
achi,  166. 

Irony,  example  of,  from  Jere- 
miah,   91. 

Isaiah,  10;  Prophecies  of, 
show  personal  religion 
gaining  ground,  23 ;  Proph- 
ecies of,  are  a  sufficient  me- 
morial, 49;  few  data  re- 
garding the  man,  49 ;  ex- 
pert in  handling  political 
and  religious  problems,  50; 
literary  style,  52-54;  had  rich 
vocabulary,  53 ;  sentence 
structure  simple,  54;  Proph- 
ecies excel  in  imagery, 
54;  examples  of  sentence 
structure,  54;  Prophecies 
contain  every  kind  of  fig- 
ure of  speech,   55;    rebukes 


formalism,  73 ;  the  greatest 
Hebrew  Prophet,  74. 
Israel  taught  through  two 
powerful  enemies,  Egypt 
and  Assyria,  50;  security 
and  prosperity  of,  led  to 
moral  laxity  and  religious 
unfaithfulness,  50;  needed 
the  Prophets,  50. 

Jeremiah  laments  over  Israel, 
23;  on  the  Creation,  38;  is 
blamed  for  unnecessary 
harshness  or  lack  of  tact, 
75 ;  his  task  more  difficult 
than  Isaiah's,  75;  called 
early  in  life,  75 ;  counseled 
national  subjection  and  de- 
manded loving  kindness,  jus- 
tice and  purity,  76 ;  was  tim- 
id, 76 ;  was  loving,  sympa- 
thetic and  brotherly,  76 ;  his 
denunciations  were  in  tears, 
76 ;  his  faithfulness,  77 ;  as 
time  passed,  was  highly  re- 
garded, 77;  disagreement 
in  estimating  writings,  78 ; 
a  Prophet  of  God  first,  a 
literary  personage  second, 
79 ;  his  Prophecies  contain 
many  selections  of  true 
poetic  beauty,  80;  is  un- 
equaled  in  expressions  of 
sorrow  and  tenderness,  80- 
81;  denounces  false  proph- 
ets, 83 ;  frequently  pro- 
voked by  idolatrous  tenden- 
cies of  Judah,  84;  had  keen 
sense  of  duty,  84;  was  sin- 
cere and  genuine,  91. 

Jerome,  on  Amos,  128;  on 
Hosea,  116. 

Joel,  calmness  of,  122;  his  el- 
egant, vivid  style,  122-123 ; 
uncertain  when  he  lived, 
122-123  >  his  prophecy  filled 
with  imagery,   124;   style  is 


Index 


i8i 


lyrical,  124;  his  imagery 
not  striking,  124;  has  com- 
bination of  sublimity  and 
tenderness,    126. 

Jonah,  abused  and  misunder- 
stood, 134;  shows  up  nar- 
rowness, bigotry  and  sel- 
fishness, 134;  has  original- 
ity of  thought  and  breadth 
of  conception,  134;  has  New 
Testament  conceptions,  134; 
Prophecy  has  little  true  po- 
etry, 134;  each  word  sug- 
gestive, 134;  a  word  paint- 
er, 135.       ^ 

Judah  more  fortunate  than  Is- 
rael, 50;  her  religion  often 
a  matter  of  diplomacy,    50. 

King,  a  righteous  and  power- 
ful, inspired  necessary  hope 
for  a  great  literature,   10. 

Kuenen,   22. 

Lamentations,  Book  of  and 
authorship  discussed,  92 ; 
written  in  a  kind  of  imper- 
fect parallelism,  92;  style 
vigorous  and  lively,  92; 
many  figures  of  speech,  93  ; 
contain  poetry  of  pathos  in 
a  profusion  of  imagery, 
98. 

Lebanon,  Mount,  36. 

Literature,  a  potent  provoked 
by  a  strong  national  life,  9 ; 
seen  in  Augustan  Age,  10; 
in  Elizabethan  age,  10;  in 
history  of  the  Hebrew  peo- 
ple, 10;  weak,  caused  by 
decline  of  Israel's  national 
life;  e.  g.,  the  literary  value 
of  Haggai  and  Zephaniah 
hardly  comparable  to  that  of 
Isaiah  and  Ezekiel,  11;  five 
important      kinds      in      the 


Bible,  34;  beginnings  of 
every,  in  poetical  form,  42. 

Living,  a,  more  important  and 
necessary  to  early  Ameri- 
cans than  a  literature,   10. 

Locust  invasion  in  Joel,   123. 

Longfellow,  H.  W.,   lo. 

Lowell,  J.  R.,   10. 

Lowth,  R.,  on  Biblical  liter- 
ature, 34;  on  "Sacred  Po- 
etry of  the  Hebrews,"  42; 
on  Nahum,  143. 

Malachi  had  important  mis- 
sion which  was  well  dis- 
charged, 162;  denounces 
forgetfulness,  162;  empha- 
sized the  ritual  in  worship, 
162;  his  style  is  pure,  earn- 
est, original,  logical  and 
compact,  163;  because  of 
the  generally  changed  atti- 
tude toward  religious  ques- 
tions in  his  time,  was  a 
teacher  rather  than  a  liter- 
ary artist,  163;  had  a  rich 
and  diversified  style,   166. 

Messiah,  expectation  of.  The, 
a  potent  influence  in  He- 
brew literature,  39;  his 
coming  inspired  some  of  the 
finest  poetry,   39. 

Metaphor,  defined,  60;  exam- 
ples of,  from  Isaiah,  with 
comments,  60-62 ;  examples 
of,  from  Lamentations,  94- 
95;  examples  of,  from  Eze- 
kiel, 105-106;  example  of, 
from  Hosea,  120;  example 
of,  from  Joel,  with  com- 
ments, 125;  examples  of, 
from  Micah,  139;  example 
of,  from  Nahum,  144;  ex- 
ample of,  from  Habakkuk, 
149;  example  of,  from 
Zephaniah,  152;  example 
of,     from    Zechariah,     159; 


l82 


Index 


example  of,  from  Malachi, 
165. 

Metonymy,  discussed  and  de- 
fined, 66;  examples  of, 
from  Isaiah,  with  com- 
ments, 66-68;  examples  of, 
from  Jeremiah,  with  com- 
ments, 87-89 ;  examples  of, 
from  Lamentations,  95-96; 
examples  of,  from  Ezekiel, 
with  comments,  109-110; 
example  of,  from  Daniel, 
114;  example  of,  from 
Amos,  with  comments,  129- 
130;  examples  of,  from  Mi- 
cah,  with  comments,  139- 
141 ;  example  of,  from  Hag- 
gai,  154;  examples  of,  from 
Zechariah,  with  comments, 
160-161;  examples  of,  from 
Malachi,  165. 

Micah,  a  great  Prophet,  135; 
problems  similar  to  Isa- 
iah's, 135;  he  faced  them 
as  a  Prophet  should,  135; 
his  work  entirely  ethical 
and  religious,  136;  seeks  to 
elevate  the  idea  of  God, 
136;  understood  the  com- 
mon people,  136;  style  is 
rich,  complete,  forceful,  log- 
ical   and    picturesque,    137; 

f  his  discourses  are  symmet- 
rical and  regular,  137;  sim- 
ilar to  Isaiah  in  literary 
style,    141. 

Mind,  Conscious,  29 ;  subcon- 
scious,  29. 

Moses,  one  of  the  first  Proph- 
ets,   15. 

Motley,  J.  L.,  10. 

Moulton,  R.  G.,  on  the  vision 
of  Zechariah,  156  (note). 

Nahum's  Prophecy  stands  for 
intensity,  142;  paints  the 
jealous    attributes    of    God, 


142;  a  concentrated  shout, 
142,  the  style  vivacious, 
original  and  graphic,  142. 

Necromancy,  used  by  false 
Prophet,   12. 

Nibelungenlied,  43. 

Obadiah,  Prophecy  of,  must 
have  remarkable  qualities 
to  have  a  place  in  the 
Scripture  Canon,  132;  dis- 
pute as  to  time  of  the 
Prophet,  132;  style  plain 
and  energetic,  132;  lan- 
guage pure  and  idiomatic, 
133;  Prophecy  ambiguous, 
133- 

Parallelism,  a  characteristic 
of  Hebrew  verse,  43 ;  dis- 
covered by  R.  Lowth,  1753 ; 
illustrated,  44-5;  stands  for 
fulness  and  melody  of  ex- 
pression, 46. 

Personality  of  writers  affects 
writings,  11. 

Personification,  defined,  62; 
its  use,  62;  several  grades 
of,  62-63 ;  examples  of, 
from  Isaiah,  63 ;  examples 
of,  from  Jeremiah,  85-86; 
examples  of,  from  Lamen- 
tations, 95 ;  examples  of, 
from  Ezekiel,  with  com- 
ments, 106;  examples  of, 
from  Hosea,  120-121 ;  ex- 
ample of,  from  Joel,  with 
comments,  125-126 ;  exam- 
ple of,  from  Jonah,  135;  ex- 
ample of,  from  Nahum, 
145 ;  examples  of,  from  Ha- 
bakkuk,  149 ;  examples  of, 
from      Zechariah,      159-160. 

Professionalism,  used  by  false 
Prophet,    12. 

Prophecies,  the  acme  of  Bibli- 
cal   literature,  47;    the   Isa- 


Index 


183 


iac,  the  literary  wonder  of 
the  ages,  51 ;  the  Isaiac, 
exhibit  vigor  and  energy  of 
style,  51-52. 

Prophet,  difference  between 
the  true  and  false,  12;  the 
Hebrew,  growth  and  devel- 
opment of,  occupies  a 
unique  place,  15;  usefulness 
enhanced  by  communication 
of  God's  will,  15. 

Prophets,  felt  themselves 
mouth-pieces  of  God  at  an 
important  epoch,  11;  mental 
temperament  of,  12;  ele- 
ments contributing  to  the 
importance  of  their  work, 
17;  felt  they  could  make  no 
mistake,  18;  came  to  have 
tremendous  power,  18;  men 
of  highest  honor,  18;  re- 
frained from  no  word  or  deed 
helpful  to  mankind,  19; 
completely  abandoned  to 
God,  19;  could  not  forget 
God's  covenant  with  Israel, 
19;  held  that  for  Israel's 
good  God  wished  to  accom- 
plish His  purposes  through 
her,  20;  became  unpopular, 
20;  adapted  old  truths  to 
new  conditions,  20;  saw 
God's  thought  for  His  peo- 
ple, 21 ;  kept  God  and  His 
standards  at  the  front,  21 ; 
eradicated  heathenish  con- 
ceptions from  the  mind  of 
Israel,  21 ;  an  effective 
force  in  centralization  of 
Israel's  national  life,  21 ; 
earlier,  delivered  oral  mes- 
sages, later,  wrote,  22;  in- 
fluence and  importance  of 
increased  until  the  time  of 
Isaiah,  25;  influence  waned 
after  work  was  done,  25-26; 
others    must     amplify     and 


make  applications  of  their 
teachings,  26 ;  were  men, 
27;  dealt  with  Jehovah 
and  His  will  concerning  Is- 
rael, 27;  compared  to 
watchmen,  27 ;  manifested 
all  kinds  of  mental  activi- 
ty, 31;  exhibited  energy 
and  activity  of  soul  and 
body,  31;  handled  political 
and  religious  problems,  50. 
Prose,  Ordinary,  inadequate 
for  Prophet's  purpose,  47. 

Quackenbos,  J.  D.,  on  the 
transliminal   self,  29. 

Reformation,   10. 
Renaissance,    10. 
Resemblance,    Figures   of,    de- 
fined,  55. 

Samuel,  one  of  the  first 
Prophets,   15. 

Schaff-Herzog  Encyclopedia 
of  Religious  Knowledge, 
quoted  on  the  influence  of 
religion  on  the  Prophets,  40. 

Schiller  on  Ezekiel,  loi. 

Schools  of  the  Prophets,  22. 

Seer  had  important  place  at 
time  of  Samuel,  16;  his  po- 
sition debatable,  16;  in 
later  monarchy  almost  en- 
tirely displaced  by  the 
Prophet,  16;  difference  be- 
tween Seer  and  Prophet,  16; 
flourished  before  Prophet, 
16. 

Shakespeare,  10. 

Sidney,  10. 

Simile,  defined,  55;  examples 
of,  from  Isaiah,  with  com- 
ments, 55-60;  examples  of, 
from  Jeremiah,  with  com- 
ments, 82-84;  examples  of, 
from    Lamentations,    93-94; 


i84 


Index 


examples  of,  from  Ezekiel, 
with  comments,  104-105 ;  ex- 
amples of,  from  Daniel, 
114;  examples  of,  from 
Hosea,  with  comments,  119- 
120;  example  of,  from 
Amos,  129;  examples  of, 
from  Micah,  138;  examples 
of,  from  Nahum,  143-144; 
examples  of,  from  Habak- 
kuk,  148;  example  of,  from 
Haggai,    154;    examples    of, 

',  from  Zechariah,  158;  ex- 
amples of,  from  Malachi, 
164. 

Smith,  G.  A.,  on  Isaiah,  49; 
contrasts  Prophecies  of 
Isaiah   and   Jeremiah,   74. 

Smith,  H.  P.,  on  Ezekiel,  99; 
on  Nahum,  142;  on  Habak- 
kuk,  151. 

Smith,  J.  M.  P.,  on  Nahum, 
142. 

Smith,  W.  Robertson,  on 
faith  and  obedience  of  a 
nation,   11. 

Sodom,  story  of  destruction 
of,  influences  Hebrew 
mind,  38. 

Spenser,    10. 

Spirit,  The  Holy,  appears  as 
a  permanent  possession  in 
the  later  Prophets,  24; 
His  various  relations 
thereto,  24;  a  large  place 
given  to,  by  Zechariah, 
156. 

State,  the  Prophetic,  A.  B, 
Davidson  on,  29;  the  men- 
tal, of  the  Prophet  com- 
pared to  ours,  29;  one  of 
composure,  32;  e.g.,  Moses 
and  Man  of  Galilee. 

Supernatural,  The,  element  in 
Prophecy,   31. 

Synecdoche,    defined   by   Bain, 

[   65;  examples  of,  from  Isa- 


'  iah,  65 ;  examples  of,  from 
Ezekiel,  108-109;  example 
of,  from  Joel,  126;  ex- 
ample    of,     from     Obadiah, 

I  133;  example  of,  from  Ze- 
chariah,   160. 

Style,  an  accommodating,  yet 
progressive,  in  Bible,  167- 
168. 

Testament,  Old,  unified  by  an 
intense  religious  and  ethi- 
cal  element,  40. 

Themes,  Common,  Prophets 
thought  deeply  and  con- 
clusively on,   35. 

Thoughts,  Great,  necessary  to 
a  great  literature,  47;  will 
carry  figures  of  speech,  47. 

Transliminal  self.  The,  J.  D. 
Quackenbos  on,  29. 

Trouveres  and  Troubadours, 
The  literature  of,  43. 

Unpreparedness  often  respon- 
sible for  religious  disturb- 
ances, 32. 

Visions,    idea    of,    revived    as 

Prophecy    declined,    31. 
Vocabulary    of    Hebrews    not 

large     but     expressive,     40; 

J.  H.  Gardiner  quoted  on,  40. 
Volition  of  the  Prophet,  J.  H. 

Gardiner  on,  28. 

Westcott,    Bishop,    on    Daniel, 

113- 
Word,     The,     of     the     Lord, 

abideth   forever,  46. 
World,  The  plan  of  the,   for 
the  salvation  of  the  people, 
169. 
Writers,    Few   good,    in   early 

American   colonies,    10. 
Writings,   The,   often  the  ba- 
rometer    of     the     national 


Index 


i8s 


life  of  a  period,  ii;  of 
Jeremiah  reveal  character 
and  temperament,  77-78. 

Zechariah,  a  true  Prophet, 
156;    was   simple,    practical 

;  and  a  leader,  156;  helped  in 
reviving  the  faith  of 
Israel,  156;  gives  a  large 
place  to  the  Holy  Spirit  and 
His  work,   156;   emphasized 


visions  and  angelology, 
156;  difference  in  style  of 
first  and  last  parts  of  the 
book,  157;  has  style  of 
direct  address,  161. 
Zephaniah  did  not  inherit  ex- 
cellent literary  ability,  150; 
emphasized  "The  Day  of 
the  Lord,"  151;  disagree- 
ment as  to  the  value  of  his 
style,  151. 


The  Story  of  English  Speech.    By  Charles  Noble. 

Shakespeare   Study    Programs:     The   Tragedies. 
By  Charlotte  Porter  and  Helen  A.  Clarke. 

Shakespeare  Study  Programs:  The  Comedies.    By 
Charlotte  Porter  and  Helen  A.  Clarke. 

Browning  Studies.    By  V.  C.  Harrington. 

Hamlet,  an  Ideal  Prince.    By  A.  W.  Crawford. 

A  History  of  English  Literature.    By  Robert  H. 
Fletcher. 

English  Essayists.    By  William  H.  Davis. 

Present  Day  American  Poetry,  and  Other  Essays. 
By  Harry  Houston  Peckham. 

A  History  of   Italian   Literature.     By  Florence 
Traill. 

The  Reign  of  the  Manuscript.    By  Perry  Wayland 
Sinks. 

German  Liberty  Authors.     By  Warren  Washburn 
Florer. 

The  Influence  of  French  Literature  on  Europe. 
By  Emeline  M.  Jensen. 

The  Novels  of  Ferdinand  Fabre.    By  Ray  P.  Bowen. 

Life  and  Works  of  Friedrich  Hebbel.    By  T.  M. 
Campbell. 

Ibsen  in  Germany.    By  William  H.  Eller. 


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